Go back to opening screen
141
Chapter 5
Peoples of the Arctic:
Characteristics of Human Populations
Relevant to Pollution Issues
Contents
5.6.6. Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
5.6.7. Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
5.1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
5.6.8. Mortality and morbidity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
5.2. United States: Alaska . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
5.6.9. Health care . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
5.2.1. Geography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
5.7. Saami . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
5.2.2. Population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
5.7.1. Geography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
5.2.2.1. Indigenous peoples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
5.7.2. Population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
Aleut . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
5.7.3. Diet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
Alutiiq . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
5.7.4. Employment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Athabascan. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
5.7.5. Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Central Yup'ik . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Eyak. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
5.8. Norway . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Iñuipat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
5.8.1. Geography. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Siberian Yupik . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
5.8.2. Population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
5.2.2.2. Non-indigenous residents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
5.8.3. Diet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
5.2.3. Hunting, fishing, and gathering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
5.8.4. Employment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Fish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
5.8.5. Housing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Marine mammals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
5.8.6. Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Terrestrial mammals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
5.8.7. Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
Birds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
5.8.8. Mortality and morbidity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
5.8.9. Health care . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
5.2.4. Diet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
5.9. Sweden . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
5.2.5. Employment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
5.9.1. Geography. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
5.2.6. Housing
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
5.9.2. Population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
5.2.7. Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
5.9.3. Diet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
5.2.8. Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
5.9.4. Employment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
5.2.9. Mortality and morbidity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
5.9.5. Housing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
5.2.10. Health care . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
5.9.6. Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
5.3. Canada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
5.9.7. Mortality and morbidity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
5.3.1. Geography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
5.9.8. Health care . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
5.3.2. Population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
5.10. Finland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
5.3.2.1. Indigenous peoples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
5.10.1. Geography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
The Inuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
5.10.2. Population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Dene and Métis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
5.10.3. Diet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
Yukon First Nations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
5.10.4. Employment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
5.3.2.2. Non-indigenous residents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
5.10.5. Housing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
5.3.3. Hunting, fishing, and gathering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
5.10.6. Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
5.3.4. Diet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
5.10.7. Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
5.3.5. Employment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
5.10.8. Mortality and morbidity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
5.3.6. Housing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
5.11. Russia
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
5.3.7. Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
5.10.1. Geography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
5.3.8. Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
5.11.2. Population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
5.3.9. Mortality and morbidity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
5.11.3. Diet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
5.3.10. Health care . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
5.11.4. Employment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
5.4. Denmark: Greenland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
5.11.5. Housing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
5.4.1. Geography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
5.11.6. Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
5.4.2. Population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
5.11.7. Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
5.4.3. Hunting, fishing, and gathering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
5.11.8. Mortality and morbidity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
5.4.4. Diet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
5.11.9. Health care . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
5.4.5. Employment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
5.11.10. History of indigenous minorities of Arctic Russia . . . . 173
5.4.6. Housing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
5.11.11. Development and prospects for the future
5.4.7. Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
of indigenous minorities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
5.4.8. Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
5.11.12. Murmansk Oblast . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
5.4.9. Mortality and morbidity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
5.11.12.1. Geography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
5.4.10. Health care . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
5.11.12.2. Population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
5.11.12.3. Diet. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
5.5. Iceland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
5.11.12.4. Employment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
5.5.1. Geography. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
5.11.13. Nenets Autonomous Okrug . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
5.5.2. Population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
5.11.13.1. Geography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
5.5.3. Diet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
5.11.13.2. Population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
5.5.4. Employment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
5.11.13.3. Diet. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
5.5.5. Housing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
5.11.13.4. Employment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
5.5.6. Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
5.11.14. Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous Okrug . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
5.5.7. Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
5.11.14.1. Geography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
5.5.8. Mortality and morbidity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
5.11.14.2. Population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
5.5.9. Health care . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
5.11.14.3. Diet. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
5.6. Denmark: The Faeroe Islands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
5.11.14.4. Employment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
5.6.1. Geography. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
5.11.15. Taimyr (Dolgan-Nenets) Autonomous Okrug . . . . . . . 176
5.6.2. Population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
5.11.15.1. Geography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
5.6.3. Diet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
5.11.15.2. Population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
5.6.4. Employment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
5.11.15.3. Diet. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
5.6.5. Housing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
5.11.15.4. Employment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
142
AMAP Assessment Report
5.11.16. Arctic districts of the Sakha Republic (Yakutia) . . . . . 176
l e u t
5.11.16.1. Geography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
A
5.11.16.2. Population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
k
5.11.16.3. Diet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
Yu
K o r y a
5.11.16.4. Employment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
p ik
C h
A l u t i i q
u v
5.11.17. Chukotka Autonomous Okrug . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
At
a
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t
a
Y u p i k
n
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a
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5.11.17.1. Geography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
T lin
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p
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Y u
5.11.17.2. Population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
k
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Iñ
Y
a
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5.11.17.3. Diet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
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5.11.17.4. Employment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
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5.12. Development and the future . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
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5.13. Indigenous knowledge and environmental contaminants 178
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5.14. Discussion and conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
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Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
en e
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References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
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5.1. Introduction
u
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K
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This chapter provides an introduction to the inhabitants of
I
a
a
N
K
the Arctic (Figure 5·1). While there is insufficient space to ex-
S
plore the extent of information that exists in the written liter-
ature or in the oral traditions of indigenous cultures, the in-
formation given here is intended to help understand how con-
taminants may affect Arctic residents, and to encourage fur-
ther investigation of these effects. The impacts that both con-
Figure 5·2. Locations of Arctic indigenous peoples.
taminants and, more insidiously, the fear of contaminants have
on, in particular, indigenous peoples and cultures demonstrate
Second, the cultures and traditions of Arctic indigenous
the need for effective communication and for preventing conta-
peoples are found nowhere else. Most of these groups con-
mination that may lead to adverse effects on Arctic peoples.
tinue their patterns of resource use, maintain their cultural
The primary focus of this chapter is on the indigenous
traditions, and fight for their rights to continue to do so.
peoples of the Arctic (Figure 5·2). This is for two reasons.
Their connection to the Arctic environment is unique and
First, indigenous peoples have been living as part of the Arc-
multifaceted. This relationship is everywhere affected, and in
tic ecosystem for millennia, and in most areas, continue to do
some cases at risk of disappearing, due to dislocation of peo-
so. As consumers of local resources, they are in some ways
ple and traditional activities. In other cases, the very exist-
the end recipients of the types of pollution that are trans-
ence of some indigenous groups is at risk. Some have become
ported long distances, as described throughout this report.
extinct, even within the twentieth century. Arctic indigenous
Many of the effects of environmental contamination are
peoples are the most fragile elements of human society in the
likely to be most pronounced among indigenous peoples.
Arctic and the most susceptible to environmental change. As
such, they deserve special attention to their ways of life, liv-
ing conditions, and prospects for the future.
In addition, of course, large numbers of immigrants have
Alaska
(United States)
moved to the region. In the Nordic countries and Russia,
481 054
this has taken place over several centuries. In North America,
only in the past century have a significant number of new
arrivals taken up permanent residence. While most of these
immigrants have come from European cultures, other peo-
ples are moving to the North as well, increasing the ethnic,
Canada
Russia
92 985
1 999 711
racial, and cultural diversity of the Arctic population.
Throughout the Arctic, the non-indigenous population is
growing, and in many areas is larger than the indigenous
population. Although some mutual assimilation and accul-
turation take place, cultural, social, economic, and other dif-
Greenland
Norway
ferences remain between the two groups, and their activities,
55 419
379 461
Finland
200 677
diets, and other routes of exposure to contaminants may
Iceland
266 783
vary as well. Some members of the general populations de-
pend upon the Arctic environment, and are sensitive to envi-
Sweden
ronmental change. Their concerns must be considered along
263 735
Faeroe
with those of indigenous peoples.
Islands
43 700
Iceland and the Faeroe Islands occupy an ambiguous
place in the dichotomy between indigenous and non-indige-
nous. The settlers who arrived before year 1000 found no
Number of inhabitants
inhabitants, and their descendants continue to live in the is-
2 000 000
lands, with distinct languages and cultures. Their societies
Indigenous population
are susceptible to environmental change in their lands and
500 000
Non-indigenous population
seas. Both, therefore, receive special attention in this chapter.
300 000
150 000
This chapter first describes the peoples of the Arctic, start-
50 000
AMAP boundary
ing in Alaska and moving east around the pole. This is done
country-by-country, with the exception that the Saami are
Figure 5·1. Total and indigenous populations of the Arctic, by Arctic area of
each country (the data from Russia are for the indigenous minority population).
considered as a group prior to the sections on the four coun-
Chapter 5 · Peoples of the Arctic
143
tries in which they live. This allows for a concise discussion
according to regional government, regional Native Corpora-
of one group which lives in a relatively compact area. Next,
tion, health care organization, administrative and organiza-
the chapter makes brief observations concerning the future
tional structure, and statistical areas. While these are consis-
of indigenous peoples, and the role of indigenous peoples in
tent on a large scale, there are several variations that prevent
understanding environmental change. These sections are in-
simple comparisons among statistics for different subjects.
tended to provide an introduction to related issues of impor-
tance for and about indigenous peoples in the Arctic. The
5.2.2.1. Indigenous peoples
chapter concludes with a summary discussion of similarities
and differences in the ways of life of Arctic peoples.
The indigenous peoples of Arctic Alaska are the Inuit (Eski-
mo), Aleut, Athabascan, and Eyak. The Inuit and Aleut lan-
guages are part of the same language family. The Inuit in-
5.2. United States: Alaska
clude Alutiiq, Central Yup'ik, Iñupiat, and Siberian Yupik.
The Athabascan (related to the Gwichin and Dene in Cana-
5.2.1. Geography
da), also include many sub-groups.
Alaska is the northwestern-most of the United States, and
The 1990 US Census counted 85 698 indigenous persons
the only state that extends into the Arctic. The territory was
in Alaska (US Department of Commerce 1993a), and Butler
purchased from Russia in 1867, and in 1959 became the 49th
(1994a) gives a 1995 estimate of 99 179. Of the 1990 total,
state admitted to the union.
approximately 73 235 lived in the Arctic. The indigenous
As elsewhere in the Arctic, there is no precise definition of
population has a greater proportion of persons under 20
Arctic Alaska. The US definition (United States 1984) includes
years of age than the US population as a whole (Figure 5·4),
all territory north of the Arctic Circle, plus territory north and
and a greater proportion of persons under 20 and over 60
west of the Porcupine, Yukon, and Kuskokwim Rivers, as well
than the overall Alaska population, which is heavily influ-
as the Aleutian chain, and all contiguous seas. The US defini-
enced by in- and out-migration of working age persons.
tion of Arctic Alaska covers approximately 700 000 km2.
Politically, the status of indigenous peoples in Alaska dif-
fers from that of Native Americans in the contiguous 48
Arcti
states, although issues of tribal sovereignty are far from set-
c Circ
tled in Alaska. The Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act of
le
1971 (ANCSA) extinguished aboriginal claims and estab-
Bering
Arctic Slope
Straits
lished regional and village native corporations to protect in-
NANA
digenous interests and to encourage economic, social, and
(Northwest Arctic)
political integration of indigenous peoples. The extent to
which this has occurred is heavily debated, and most observ-
Doyon
ers agree that the goals of ANCSA have not been fully real-
ized (e.g., Berger 1985, Alaska Natives Commission 1994).
Calista
Other issues, such as subsistence rights, are also promi-
nent. The Alaska State Constitution forbids racial discrimi-
nation, preventing the State of Alaska from favoring indige-
Bristol Bay
Cook Inlet
Ahtna
nous interests in subsistence and other areas. Certain federal
environmental laws, such as the Marine Mammal Protection
Aleut
Chugach
Act and the Endangered Species Act, contain exemptions for
Koniag
Alaskan indigenous peoples to preserve traditional hunting
practices. Authority to manage subsistence resources is di-
Number of inhabitants
vided between the state and federal governments, and re-
300 000
mains a contentious and unsettled issue (Huntington 1992,
Alaska Natives Commission 1994).
100 000
In addition, the ownership of land in Alaska is complex.
50 000
Indigenous
population
Different federal, state, local, and private entities owning or
20 000
Non-indigenous
managing adjacent and interwoven lands often have differ-
10 000
population
ent regulations and practices regarding land use. This arrange-
ment further confuses the issues of subsistence hunting and
traditional land use. The situation offshore is similar. Two
Figure 5·3. Total and indigenous populations of Arctic Alaska, by Native
Regional Corporation region (US Department of Commerce 1993a).
federal agencies split management responsibility for marine
mammals, and additional state and federal agencies manage
The AMAP region as considered in this report is broader,
fishing and mineral development in near-shore and outer-
including the entire state of Alaska with the exception of the
continental-shelf regions (Huntington 1992).
southeastern `panhandle.' This definition covers approxi-
mately 1 400 000 km2. Throughout this section, the AMAP
Age
regional definition will be used.
Alaska Native
> 60
U.S. Overall
40-59
5.2.2. Population
According to the 1990 Census, 481 054 people lived in Arc-
20-39
tic Alaska that year (US Department of Commerce 1993a)
(Figure 5·3). Due largely to in-migration, the state's popula-
< 20
tion in all regions has been rising rapidly for decades.
50%
40
30
20
10
0
0
10
20
30
40
50%
In rural Alaska, there are several distinct regions, each with
Figure 5·4. Age structure of Alaska indigenous, Alaska total, and United
a regional center. There are several delineations of the regions,
States total populations, 1980 (compiled from Middaugh et al. 1991).
144
AMAP Assessment Report
Migrations from region to region, or from villages to regio-
guages in Alaska that remains the primary language for
nal and urban centers such as Nome and Anchorage, are com-
most children in the region. The subsistence activities of the
mon, but have not blurred regional identities and boundaries.
region center on fish, with marine and terrestrial mammals,
The descriptions given below are for the traditional areas in-
birds and bird eggs, and plants also playing a significant
habited by each group, which remain the basis for group iden-
role. The customs and activities of the Central Yup'ik, often
tity and traditional activity. Nonetheless, it must be under-
overlooked by researchers and readers more familiar with
stood that present-day social, cultural, and economic patterns
the Iñupiat (Fienup-Riordan 1990, 1994), remain strong in
are a complex system of adaptations to a wide variety of mod-
the villages of southwest Alaska, and include many tradi-
ern influences (e.g., Berger 1985, Kruse 1986, Carey 1992).
tions and beliefs concerning hunting and sharing.
For indigenous peoples of Alaska, changes are occurring
in all aspects of life. The end point of these changes is un-
Eyak
known, and the pace of change varies from region to region,
The Eyak, linguistic relatives of the Athabascans, live on the
from village to village, from family to family, and even with-
southern coast of Alaska, in the Cordova area to the east of
in families. The relative degrees of cultural retention, change,
Prince William Sound. Though the Eyak are Alaska's least
adaptation, or assimilation cannot be rated on a simple scale.
numerous indigenous group, and only one elder still speaks
Traditional customs and activities are a common tie, and a
the language, many Eyak are actively reviving their culture
source of identity.
(Campbell 1996).
Aleut
Iñupiat
The Aleuts inhabit the islands of the Aleutian chain, includ-
The Iñupiat live in the coastal and tundra regions of Alaska
ing the Kommandorskye Islands of Russia, the Pribilof Islands
north of Norton Sound in the Bering Sea. Although linguisti-
of the Bering Sea, and the Alaska Peninsula on the North
cally related to the Siberian Yupik and Central Yup'ik, the
American mainland. Primarily a sea-going people, the Aleut
Iñupiat are more closely related to the Inuvialuit and Inuit of
depend upon fish, marine mammals, and birds for their diet.
Canada and the Kalallit of Greenland. Coastal Iñupiat de-
A small percentage of the diet is derived from plants. Mili-
pend upon marine mammals, caribou, birds, and fish, while
tary activity during and after the Second World War caused
inland Iñupiat concentrate on caribou, fish, and birds. In all
large-scale relocations of Aleut villages, at least temporarily,
cases, plants amount to no more than a few percent of the
and have influenced the economy of the region. Commercial
diet. Traditional trade and bartering extended hundreds of
fishing is the primary economic activity of the Aleutian chain,
miles, and was centered on annual trade fairs in places near
with processing and harbor facilities at Unalaska (Dutch
modern Kotzebue (northwest Alaska) and Nuiqsut (on the
Harbor) and, more recently, St. Paul.
Colville River delta in the central North Slope) (Spencer
1959). The extent of this trade, like many other customs,
Alutiiq
remains strong today, as subsistence products are shared
The Alutiiq, or Sugpiaq, live in southwestern and southcen-
among villages across the region.
tral Alaska, on the Alaska Peninsula, Kodiak Island, the
southern Kenai Peninsula, and the areas surrounding Prince
Siberian Yupik
William Sound. Linguistically, they are related to the Central
The Siberian Yupik in Alaska inhabit St. Lawrence Island in
Yupik, and they share cultural attributes with both the Yupik
the Bering Sea, and are sometimes referred to as St. Lawrence
and the Aleuts (Pullar 1996). Alutiiq communities are coastal,
Island Yupik. They are the same group as the Yupik of the
and have high dependence upon fish (mainly salmon) and
Chukotka, Russia, mainland, sharing language, customs, and
terrestrial mammals (mainly caribou), in addition to birds,
kinship ties across the international border. St. Lawrence Is-
plants, and marine mammals. Commercial fishing is the pri-
land has in the past supported reindeer herds, but today the
mary economic activity for this area (Fall and Morris 1987).
major subsistence resources are all marine, primarily walrus
and bowhead whale, as well as fish, shellfish, seals, and birds.
Athabascan
Some plants are gathered as well, but as with all Arctic re-
The Athabascans inhabit the boreal forests of interior Alas-
gions of Alaska, plants are a minor component of the overall
ka, and parts of the Yukon Territory and the Northwest Ter-
diet. Traditional customs remain strong on St. Lawrence Is-
ritories of Canada. There are several linguistic sub-groups
land, and the renewed ties to Chukotka have revived cus-
within the Athabascan region. These are the Ahtna, the
tomary trade as well as intermarriage.
Gwichin, the Ingalik, the Han, the Holikachuk, the Koyukon,
the Tanacross, the Tanaina, the Tanana, the Upper Kusko-
5.2.2.2. Non-indigenous residents
kwim, and the Upper Tanana (Krauss 1982). Traditional ac-
tivities include salmon fishing, caribou and moose hunting,
While indigenous residents outnumber the immigrant popu-
and trapping (VanStone 1974, Nelson 1983). Birds, other
lation in some rural areas, the majority of Alaskans today
terrestrial mammals, and some plants are also taken for sub-
are non-indigenous. These residents are more likely to live in
sistence hunting, and coastal communities hunt marine
urban areas, of which Anchorage and Fairbanks are the
mammals such as the beluga whale. Traditional bartering
most populous. Most non-indigenous residents are new ar-
with Iñupiat and Yupik neighbors brought coastal foods
rivals to the state, although a few families have lived in the
such as seal oil and other marine products into the interior
area for several generations. Hunting and fishing are popu-
(Huntington 1966, Huntington 1993).
lar with many non-indigenous residents, but the patterns
and extent of use are rarely as extensive as they are for indi-
Central Yup'ik
genous persons. In terms of exposure to environmental con-
The Central Yup'ik, also known as Yup'ik and including the
taminants, the risks faced by non-indigenous residents will
Cup'ik, inhabit the coast and tundra of the Yukon-Kuskok-
be no greater than those faced by Natives, and in most cases
wim Delta in southwest Alaska. They are the most numer-
smaller. Therefore, the following section concentrates pri-
ous of Alaska's Inuit groups. The Central Yup'ik language
marily on describing the activities and lifestyles of the indi-
is, along with Siberian Yupik, one of the few indigenous lan-
genous peoples.
Chapter 5 · Peoples of the Arctic
145
and priorities for subsistence hunting and fishing reach into
%
the heart of indigenous politics, economy, and society. The
80
60
political and legal questions surrounding this debate are far
40
from resolved in Alaska, and so the long-term dimensions of
20
0
access to and regulation of subsistence activities are unclear.
Arctic
While land ownership is a relatively new concept, the abil-
%
80
%
ity to use resources as they are needed is the traditional and
80
60
60
primary basis for traditional resource use. Harvest areas
40
40
20
used by any particular village may consist of several thou-
20
0
0
sand square kilometers of sea and land. Land use regulations
Western
Interior
%
may affect several villages in a region, including some that
80
60
%
are hundreds of kilometers distant.
80
40
60
While production is a crucial and often-studied aspect of
20
40
0
20
subsistence, sharing is perhaps the most valued aspect of sub-
Southwest /
0
sistence. Sharing touches upon all members of a community,
Aleutians
%
80
Southcentral/
Prince William
and represents a way of establishing, strengthening, and main-
60
40
Sound
taining ties to family and community, and among communi-
20
ties (Bodenhorn 1989, Wenzel 1994). For certain species, cus-
0
Kodiak Island
tom dictates how the animal is to be shared. This may depend
upon whether it is the first taken in a given season, or if it is
Fish
the first taken by that hunter. Disruptions to subsistence that
Kg/person/year
Terrestrial mammals
threaten sharing are seen as most damaging to indigenous
300
150
Marine mammals
society as a whole. Such disruption may include presence of
50
Other (birds, shellfish, plants)
contaminants in foods, or even the fear of contaminants,
since hunters may be reluctant to give tainted meat away.
Figure 5·5. Total and composition of subsistence production for small and
It is critical to note that, at either the individual or com-
mid-sized communities in selected areas of Alaska (Robert J. Wolfe, Alaska
Department of Fish and Game, Division of Subsistence, Juneau, Alaska).
munity level, subsistence harvest production levels do not
relate directly to consumption levels. Individual hunters, or
households with active hunters, usually produce food for a
5.2.3. Hunting, fishing, and gathering
number of people who cannot or do not hunt for themselves.
For indigenous peoples in Alaska, subsistence (the hunting,
Andrews (1989) describes individual household productions
fishing, and gathering of local foods for consumption, shar-
in the Central Yup'ik village of Nunapitchuk in excess of
ing, and trade or barter) is a deeply-rooted source of iden-
5000 kg of edible foods per year, most of which is then shared.
tity, through both the harvesting activities themselves, and
In addition, the focus of individual harvests may vary consid-
the consumption and distribution of foods and other prod-
erably within a village, depending upon available harvesting
ucts from the harvest. Figure 5·5 shows the composition of
tools (e.g., whether the individual has access to a boat).
subsistence production for regions of Alaska.
Village averages can be similarly misleading, since high
Table 5·1 shows, as an example, the size of the harvest in
production of a particular resource by a village may indicate
Barrow, and the percentage of participating households for
trade with other villages for other resources. For example,
each resource. Clearly, harvesting local foods is a common
beluga whale harvests in Point Lay on the North Slope are
and vital part of local life in rural Alaska.
high, but the beluga is shared throughout the region, and
Despite widespread technological and social changes, sub-
may be exchanged for bowhead whale, which are not hunted
sistence remains a critical part of modern village life in Alas-
in Point Lay (G. Upicksoun pers. comm.). Such trade also
ka (Burch 1985, Barker 1993). Current debates over rights to
explains the presence of marine products in inland villages,
since furs and caribou may be traded for seal and whale.
Table 5·1. Composition of, and participation in, annual subsistence pro-
duction for Iñupiat households in Barrow, Alaska, 3-year average (1987-
Thus, consumption does not neatly follow production, and
89), usable amounts of major species. (Stephen R. Braund & Associates
calculations of contaminants risk based upon local produc-
and Institute of Social and Economic Research 1993).
tion do not adequately account for the volume of trade and
% of Iñupiat
sharing that distribute subsistence products over a wide area.
Household
Per capita
households
Resource
mean, kg
mean, kg
participating
Fish
Marine mammals
304
74
76
For rural Alaska as a whole, fish are 59% by weight of the
Bowhead whale
216
55
75
total subsistence harvest; for certain regions, fish comprise
Walrus
47
10
29
over three-quarters of the harvest (Wolfe n.d.). Except for the
Bearded seals
22
5
46
Ringed and spotted seals
13
3
27
northernmost region of Alaska, fish are the majority of the
Polar bear
6
1
7
subsistence harvest by weight (see Figure 5·5). Salmon are the
Terrestrial mammals
145
30
77
most important species, but whitefish, burbot, and trout spe-
Caribou
138
29
77
Moose
7
1
7
cies are significant as well. Several species of shellfish are also
Fish
65
13
60
important to subsistence harvests, including clams and crab.
Whitefish
50
10
54
Fish are typically caught by net, both in the ocean and in
Other freshwater fish
9
2
33
rivers and lakes. Salmon fishing depends upon the timing of
Salmon
4
1
16
Other coastal fish
2
<1
23
the salmon runs, but fishing for resident species occurs at var-
Birds
18
4
65
ious times of the year. Fishing for tomcod or smelt may take
Geese
11
2
40
place any time of the year. Fishing for many species, and pri-
Eiders
6
1
52
Ptarmigan
<1
<1
26
marily for salmon, is done near established fish camps. Fam-
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
ilies and extended families may spend up to several months
Total
532
121
87
at fish camp, living in tents or wooden cabins.
146
AMAP Assessment Report
Fish are preserved through three primary means: drying
ally eaten as they were preserved, or cooked by boiling, roast-
in open air, smoking, and freezing. In some areas, fish are
ing, or frying. Fat and internal organs are also valued foods.
also fermented, salted, or canned. They are eaten either as
As with marine mammals, there are a number of cultural
they were preserved, or in coastal areas they may be dipped
and religious associations with terrestrial mammals and
in seal oil. Eggs are usually eaten, as are heads.
their use. These include taking of moose by Athabascan In-
dians for funeral potlatches, and the giving of a hunter's first
Marine mammals
caribou to an elder.
For coastal communities in Arctic Alaska, marine mammals
are a critical and highly valued resource. They are also the
Birds
reason that many communities are located on coastal points,
Although birds comprise only a few percent of the annual
since migrating marine mammals pass within close range. In
subsistence harvest, they are significant in the seasonal hunt-
northern and northwestern Alaska, marine mammals account
ing cycle. Several species of geese, ducks and other seabirds,
for 42% of the subsistence harvest, or 99 kg per person per
swans, cranes, owls, and ptarmigan are hunted. In many areas,
year (Wolfe n.d.). In these regions, the primary species taken
birds are the first animals to return in spring, and thus are the
are bowhead whales, beluga whales, walrus, bearded seals,
first source of fresh meat available to hunters after the winter.
ringed seals, polar bear, and other species of seals. In south-
Birds are preserved by freezing, drying, or by fermenting.
western Alaska and the Aleutian chain (southern Bering Sea),
They are eaten cooked, boiled, or in soups.
the marine mammal harvest is lower, but has great cultural
significance. In these regions, the primary species taken are
Plants
walrus, harbour seal, bearded seal, sea lion, and fur seal.
Gathering of plants provides another dietary supplement to the
Hunting of large marine mammals is usually a coopera-
overall subsistence harvest in Alaska, adding nutrients to the
tive effort due to the size of the animals and the difficulty of
diet. Many species of berries, roots, and greens are harvested,
the hunting conditions. Smaller species, such as seals, polar
some for medicinal purposes. For obvious reasons, this harvest
bear, and sometimes beluga whale, are hunted by individuals
is highly seasonal, though plants may be stored frozen or in
or by a single boat. The hunting methods vary greatly by
seal oil and eaten throughout the year. Berries are often com-
season and by village. For hunting bowhead whales, camps
bined with fat into agutuk (spelled variously), or `Eskimo Ice
are established on the sea ice or on shore near open water.
Cream'. Despite the relatively small quantities, plants, like
Whaling crews may spend more than one month at these
birds, play a large role in the seasonal round. In some regions,
camps, living in tents on the ice or in small cabins on land.
berry camps are set up during the fall season. The majority of
Marine mammal hunting for other species is sometimes
plant gathering is done by women and children (Jones 1983).
done from shore-based camps away from the village.
Marine mammal foods are frozen, dried, or fermented for
5.2.4. Diet
storage. These can be eaten as they are stored, or cooked by
boiling or frying. Seal oil is rendered and is eaten with other
The indigenous Alaskan diet relies heavily upon indigenous
foods as a condiment. Polar bear and walrus meat are cooked
foods. Documentation of consumption quantities is not avail-
to avoid trichinosis, and polar bear livers are avoided due to
able beyond a few specific cases. Instead, an overview of di-
toxic levels of vitamin A. Blubber and internal organs are
etary practices and trends can be gathered from available
regularly eaten, as is the skin and blubber from whales (mak-
publications and experienced researchers (e.g., Nobmann
tak or mangtak).
1989, Nobmann et al. 1992). While a number of `western'
In all regions, sharing of marine mammals is frequently
foods are consumed with great frequency, mean daily intake
associated with rituals of division of the catch, giving to el-
of fish, for example, is 109 g, more than six times the Ame-
ders, and, in the case of large species such as bowhead and
rican average of 17 g (Nobmann et al. 1992). The diet was
walrus, festivals celebrating a successful hunt. For coastal
also found to be nutritious, based upon calculations of the
communities, marine mammals are a vital cultural resource,
nutrient values for indigenous foods (Nobmann 1993).
as well as a significant contribution to the local diet.
Seasonal variations are apparent, including a greater con-
sumption of fish in summer and of marine mammal prod-
Terrestrial mammals
ucts in winter. Shifts in consumption patterns between 1956-
For both coastal and inland communities, terrestrial mam-
61 (Heller and Scott 1967) and the present (Nobmann et al.
mals form a significant part of the subsistence harvest. Cari-
1992) indicate increases in intake of certain nutrients and
bou are the primary species hunted, although moose, Dall
declines in others. Overall, the diet is nutritious, in addition
sheep, muskox, brown and black bear, and a variety of smal-
to the spiritual and cultural well-being that it brings, and the
ler mammals are also taken. Reindeer herding, introduced in
indigenous foods remain important sources of vitamins, min-
the early 20th century, continues in some areas of Alaska.
erals, and energy. While several factors have led to changes
At present, caribou populations throughout the Arctic re-
in diet among indigenous peoples, a shift in diet away from
gion are high, as are harvest levels. Due to their migrations,
indigenous foods is likely to be detrimental to overall indige-
caribou are hunted throughout the year in different commu-
nous health, including physical, social and spiritual health.
nities, depending upon their local availability. Moose, sheep,
muskox, and smaller mammals are available more consis-
5.2.5. Employment
tently, although local preferences and government hunting
regulations may restrict harvests.
With the exception of the North Slope Borough (essentially
Trapping of terrestrial mammals is common in Arctic Alas-
the same as the Arctic Slope region) and some fishing com-
ka. Trapped species include wolf, fox, marten, otter, mink,
munities in south and southwest Alaska, local economies in
beaver, porcupine, lynx, hare, and parka squirrel. Furs are
rural Alaska depend heavily on state and federal government
used for clothing and handicrafts, and many of these species
funds. For its revenue, the North Slope Borough's govern-
are also eaten.
ment taxes the property of the oil production facilities in and
Terrestrial mammals are preserved by freezing and by dry-
around Prudhoe Bay. Commercial fishing, primarily for her-
ing, as well as occasionally by fermentation. They are usu-
ring and salmon, provides seasonal income for many com-
Chapter 5 · Peoples of the Arctic
147
Table 5·2. Employment statistics for indigenous persons over age 16 in Arctic Alaska, by Native Regional Corporation region
(U.S. Department of Commerce 1993a).
% of persons
% of employed
% of employed persons in
over age 16
% of labor force
persons working
Region
in labor force
unemployed
35 hours/week
government
manufacturing
forestry / fisheries
Ahtna
48.7
54.4
53.0
39.8
--
--
Aleut
53.2
10.7
66.5
32.9
7.2
18.4
Arctic Slope
68.4
23.2
75.8
67.5
1.6
0.7
Bering Straits
51.0
24.6
51.0
53.6
1.1
1.4
Bristol Bay
41.9
18.3
49.1
62.0
1.0
2.7
Calista
48.9
22.4
47.1
64.4
1.3
1.3
Chugach
53.0
16.2
67.2
29.7
10.0
12.7
Cook Inlet
60.1
20.5
74.4
27.0
7.0
2.2
Doyon
55.4
30.0
57.8
44.0
2.7
1.0
Koniag
58.6
14.6
61.5
34.9
6.5
12.7
NANA (Northwest Arctic)
51.6
27.5
67.0
49.8
0.8
0.2
munities south of the Bering Strait. Mining for gold, lead
5.2.7. Education
and zinc, and jade also provide employment. The majority
of jobs, however, are in the service and public (government)
In recent decades, village residents have had access to school-
sectors of the economy (see Table 5·2).
ing through high school without leaving their community.
Employment opportunities in rural Alaska are limited.
This has increased high school graduation rates. In the Arc-
State of Alaska unemployment statistics are likely to under-
tic areas, 52-75% of indigenous residents are high school
estimate the actual figures, since `discouraged' workers (i.e.,
graduates, and 2-6.5% have university degrees (Table 5·3)
those who have not sought employment in the four weeks
(US Department of Commerce 1993a). Younger age groups
prior to the survey) are not included in the statistics (Fried
have higher high school graduation rates (North Slope Bor-
1994a, North Slope Borough 1995). Also, underemployment
ough 1995). Rural community colleges (i.e., introductory
is common, since many jobs are seasonal or temporary (North
courses at the university level) exist in each regional center,
Slope Borough 1995). In some cases, this may reflect a pref-
although in some cases the emphasis has turned toward vo-
erence, since it allows more time for subsistence activities.
cational training rather than academic education (Nuqiittaq-
Nonetheless, 21.4% of rural Alaskans have income below
tuat Atautchikun 1995).
the US poverty line, compared with 9.0% of the whole Alas-
Table 5·3. Education attainments for indigenous persons over age 25
ka population (Fried 1994b).
in Arctic Alaska, by percent, by Native Regional Corporation region
Raising the levels of rural employment, especially as rural
(U.S. Department of Commerce 1993a).
populations grow, is a critical problem for Alaska (Blatch-
High school
Attained
ford 1994). While ties to subsistence activities and village
Region
graduates
Bachelor's degree
life may lessen the attraction of moving to urban areas, the
economic pressure to seek work and better living conditions
Ahtna
53.4
2.5
Aleut
54.5
2.5
may cause substantial migrations from rural to urban Alaska.
Arctic Slope
54.6
2.7
Bering Straits
52.7
2.2
Bristol Bay
57.7
3.8
5.2.6. Housing
Calista
52.2
2.7
Chugach
65.6
1.9
Rural Alaska has a chronic housing shortage. The economic
Cook Inlet
75.6
6.5
conditions described above, the high cost of building materi-
Doyon
63.9
4.2
Koniag
63.1
4.6
als (Alaska Housing Finance Corporation 1994), and the rate
NANA (Northwest Arctic)
55.4
2.2
of population growth combine to keep supply well below de-
mand. Median occupancy rates in some regions exceed one per-
son per room (US Department of Commerce 1993b, 1993c).
5.2.8. Language
Much existing housing is inadequate in terms of size, qual-
ity of construction and insulation, and plumbing. In the Arc-
While indigenous languages have suffered greatly due to the
tic regions of Alaska, fewer than half the villages have preva-
prevalence of English and former school policies which ban-
lent flush-toilet systems. In northern, northwestern, and south-
ned their use, they are still widely spoken in many regions of
western Alaska (Arctic Slope, NANA (Northwest Arctic),
Arctic Alaska. Table 5·4 shows results of the 1990 Census
Bering Straits, and Calista regions), nearly three-quarters of
questions concerning use of non-English languages as well as
villages are without consistent flush-toilet systems (Ollofson
1993). In most of these cases, running water is also unavail-
Table 5·4. Language abilities among indigenous persons over age 5
able in the home. Treated water is usually supplied centrally
in Arctic Alaska, by percent, by Native Regional Corporation region
(U.S. Department of Commerce 1993a).
in each village, although residents frequently prefer water
taken directly from nearby creeks, lakes, or melted from ice.
Speak a non-English
Don't speak
Region
language
English well
Sewage disposal is a significant problem for many vil-
lages. Topographic relief may be slight, and drinking water
Ahtna
31.4
12.3
supplies may not be easily kept separate during seasonal
Aleut
13.2
4.0
Arctic Slope
72.6
17.3
changes in water level. In addition, villages located along
Bering Straits
49.2
12.3
rivers may discharge untreated sewage into waters that flow
Bristol Bay
43.1
18.8
past villages farther downstream. Lack of sanitation, plus
Calista
76.2
37.0
Chugach
24.0
5.9
the lack of readily-available clean water in the home for
Cook Inlet
17.1
4.4
such routine practices as hand washing, contributes to the
Doyon
21.5
7.6
spread of diseases such as hepatitis A and giardia within
Koniag
11.8
2.4
NANA (Northwest Arctic)
48.0
17.5
rural communities (State of Alaska 1991).
148
AMAP Assessment Report
self-perceived fluency in English. Efforts to preserve and pro-
daugh et al. 1991). The excess of mortality, which is greater
mote indigenous languages are under way in schools and in
than the excess of incidence, may be due to late diagnosis,
the communities as a whole. These programs are relatively
less than optimal treatment available in rural Alaska, higher
new, and their long-term effect remains to be seen.
incidence of less-treatable cancers, or other factors (Lanier
1993, Lanier et al. 1994). Lanier (1993) also reports that one-
third of new cancers and cancer deaths are tobacco related.
5.2.9. Mortality and morbidity
Morbidity statistics also show sharp differences between
The leading causes of death in Alaska are cancer (135 deaths
indigenous peoples and the general US population. The lead-
per 100 000 population), heart disease (118.5 per 100 000),
ing disease-related cause of hospitalization in Indian Health
unintentional injuries (51 per 100 000), and suicide (23 per
Service facilities in Alaska in 1993 was pneumonia (follow-
100 000) (Alaska Bureau of Vital Statistics 1995). Boedeker
ing deliveries, injuries, and complications during pregnancy).
and Davidson (1994) report that heart disease is the leading
Pneumonia was second to malignant neoplasms as a disease-
cause of death of indigenous Alaskans, when age-adjusted
related cause of the actual number of days spent in hospital
to the US population. They also report that age-adjusted in-
(Boedeker and Davidson 1994). Davidson et al. (1989, 1993)
digenous mortality for most types of cancer is higher than
report that among Yupik in the Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta
the rates for the US population overall. Patterns of disease
and Iñupiat in the NANA (Northwest Arctic) region, inci-
are changing, reflecting numerous factors, including in-
dence by age group of invasive pneumococcal disease is up
creased life expectancy, decreases in physical activity, and
to 60 times the corresponding rate for the US population as
changes in smoking, diet, nutrition, health care delivery, and
a whole. Although case-fatality rates appear unusually low
diagnostic capabilities in the state (G. Egeland pers. comm.).
for the disease, the incidence rates `appear to be the highest
Most available studies and figures do not separate data
reported for any population worldwide' (1989). Davidson et
into regions or indigenous groups, so most data presented in
al. (1993) also report that vaccine treatment is effective and
this section are for all indigenous peoples of Alaska. Overall
can be administered among remote populations.
death rates for indigenous peoples have been declining for
Some disease-causing factors are more prevalent among
some time (Boedeker and Butler 1993). Life expectancy for
indigenous Alaskans than the general US population. Al-
an indigenous newborn in 1950 was 46.84 years; in 1980-
though low in total numbers, botulism also reaches its high-
84, it was 66.60 years (Middaugh et al. 1991). In particular,
est incidence worldwide among indigenous Alaskans, com-
deaths from injuries, accidents, water/drowning, and homi-
plicated by use of plastic bags and containers for storing and
cide declined significantly between 1980 and 1990. Injury
aging foods (Segal 1992).
deaths still remain far higher in Alaska than in the US as a
Smoking is more common among Alaskans than in the
whole. In Alaska, 16% of all deaths were from injuries, com-
US population at large (Owen et al. 1996), and appears to
pared with 4% nationwide (State of Alaska 1994). Many
be increasing (Murphy et al. 1996). In 1991, 31.4% of in-
other causes of death appear to be declining slightly.
digenous Alaskans and Native Americans smoked, compared
Heart disease deaths appear to be increasing among indi-
with 25.7% of all Americans (Bartecchi et al. 1994). The
genous Alaskans and decreasing among non-indigenous resi-
State of Alaska (1991) reports that 25.9% of Alaska adults
dents of the state. In 1950, among men aged 45-64 years, the
smoke, and 38.6% of indigenous adults smoke. Lanier et al.
heart disease and atherosclerosis death rate was 185 per
(1994) report a prevalence of 50% for current indigenous
100 000 for indigenous men, and 558 per 100 000 for non-
adult smokers, as well as a high and early use of chewing to-
indigenous men. In 1980-89, the indigenous rate had increased
bacco, leading to other forms of tobacco use. A recent study
to 243 per 100 000, and the non-indigenous rate had de-
analyzing deaths in 1992-94 found that nearly 20% of deaths
creased to 222 per 100 000 (Alaska Department of Health
in Alaska were attributable to smoking (Schumacher 1996).
and Social Services, Section of Epidemiology, unpubl. data).
Alcohol abuse is also a significant behavioral risk factor
In the indigenous population, diabetes, breast cancer, sui-
in Alaska, especially for indigenous Alaskans (State of Alaska
cide, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, lung cancer,
1991, 1994, Bashshur and Quick 1990).
and neoplasms are increasing with some statistical signifi-
cance (Boedeker and Butler 1993, Butler 1994b). Increased
5.2.10. Health care
prevalence of non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus and
impaired glucose tolerance appears to be associated with de-
The current health care system in rural Alaska is provided
creased consumption of seal oil and fish (Adler et al. 1994).
by tribal organizations contracted by the Indian Health Ser-
Incidence of specific cancers among indigenous peoples
vice of the US Public Health Service (PHS), which is respon-
varies from that of the general US population, and is most
sible for providing health care to indigenous Americans
similar to that of Inuit in Canada and Greenland. Compared
throughout the USA. In rural Alaska, there are no alterna-
with the overall US population, indigenous Alaskans have
tives, and so non-indigenous residents are also allowed to
higher incidence of cancer in the nasopharynx, esophagus,
use these facilities. Health care is provided in cooperation
stomach, liver, gallbladder, cervix, and kidney, and lower in-
with regional nonprofit organizations. These administer pro-
cidence in the prostate, breast, uterus, bladder, and leukemia/
grams, hire local health aides, and provide support for pa-
lymphoma (Lanier 1993, Lanier et al. 1994). From 1984-88,
tients in their communities in the form of interpretations
the overall age-adjusted cancer incidence rate for indigenous
and health instruction, as well as for patients in Anchorage
persons is comparable to that of the general US population.
or Fairbanks who are undergoing medical treatments un-
Separated by sex, the overall incidence rate for indigenous
available in the communities or regional centers.
males is lower than that of the US population; for indige-
The facilities available in rural Alaska are below the na-
nous females, the rate is higher. The overall rate for Inuit is
tional averages, especially in human resources for health
lower for both sexes (Lanier et al. 1994).
education and primary health care (Aleutian-Pribilof Islands
Mortality from cancer is higher in the Alaska Area Native
Association Health Department n.d.). A report to the gover-
Health Service region than for any other population served
nor and the legislature of Alaska concluded, `By nearly all
by the Indian Health Service (Valway 1991). Among indige-
measures, the health status of indigenous Alaskans is signifi-
nous females, cancer is the leading cause of mortality (Mid-
cantly lower than other Alaskans. The health needs of indi-
Chapter 5 · Peoples of the Arctic
149
Number of inhabitants
30 000
15 000
10 000
5 000
Circle
Indigenous population
Arctic
Inuvialuit
Non-indigenous
population
Baffin
Iñuvik
Kitikmeot
Yukon Territory
Keewatin
Fort Smith
Nunavik
Labrador
Figure 5·6. Total and indigenous populations of Arctic Canada (Statistics Canada 1995).
genous Alaskans far outstrip the resources available through
Nunavik or Northern Quebec in Quebec; and Baffin, Kee-
the Alaska Area Native Health Service (PHS) and its tribal
watin, Kitikmeot, and the Inuvialuit Settlement Area of the
contractors. Many villages do not have basic water and sani-
Northwest Territories. Baffin, Keewatin, and Kitikmeot
tation services which are essential to the control of disease'
comprise the soon-to-be-created territory of Nunavut. Dene
(Alaska State Legislature 1993).
and Métis communities are located in the Fort Smith and In-
uvik regions of the western Northwest Territories, within
the northern extent of the treeline. The Yukon Territory in-
5.3. Canada
cludes 14 First Nations, and is treated as one region. Where
significant, this section will note the main differences be-
5.3.1. Geography
tween conditions and patterns in each area.
The Canadian Arctic as covered in this section, consists of
the Yukon and Northwest Territories, plus the Inuit areas of
5.3.2. Population
northern Quebec and Labrador. This area comprises some
40% of the land area of Canada, or roughly 4 million km2.
According to the 1991 Census, the Canadian Arctic had 92 985
For statistical and other purposes, the Canadian Arctic can
residents, of whom 47 351 were indigenous (Figure 5·6).
be divided into three sections: the Inuit area of the North-
west Territories, Quebec and Labrador, the Dene/Métis area
5.3.2.1. Indigenous peoples
of the Northwest Territories, and the Yukon Territory. The
Inuit area includes six regions: Labrador in Newfoundland;
Three groups of indigenous peoples are recognized in the
Canadian Constitution: the Inuit, the Métis, and the Indi-
%
ans, who in the Arctic include the Dene and the Yukon
70
First Nations. This section will describe the Inuit of Labra-
60
dor, Quebec, and the Northwest Territories; the Dene and
Métis of the Northwest Territories; and the 14 First Na-
50
tions of the Yukon Territory. The primary basis for these
40
distinctions is the alliances formed in the land-claim pro-
cess, which has been going on for over twenty years in
30
northern Canada. These alliances tend to follow cultural,
20
ethnic, and geographic boundaries, which form appropriate
distinctions for the considerations in the following sections.
10
In Labrador, there are also two Innu communities within the
0
range of the Inuit communities, but these are not included
1-14 years
15-49 years
50-64 years
> 64 years
in this discussion.
As seen in other indigenous populations throughout the
Inuit
Dene/Metis
Yukon First Nations
country, the indigenous population of the Arctic is predomi-
nantly young. This is especially true of the Inuit population
Figure 5·7. Age structure of the indigenous population of Arctic Canada,
by ethnicity (Statistics Canada 1994, 1995).
(Figure 5·7).
150
AMAP Assessment Report
The Inuit
5.3.3. Hunting, fishing, and gathering
The most northerly of the indigenous peoples of Canada are
the Inuit, widely known as hunters of marine mammals, and
A wide range of plant and animal species are used in the
still dependent on a wide range of indigenous foods from
Canadian Arctic. Figure 5·8 shows harvest levels of the re-
marine, terrestrial, and freshwater habitats. Inuit share a
source categories used in each Inuit region and the Yukon
common language, with regional dialects.
Territory. Community-specific patterns vary according to
In the six Inuit regions, there are 54 Inuit communities,
custom and local availability of resources. While there is lit-
the populations of which are between 41.9% and 98.9% indi-
tle detailed information on the harvesting activities of Dene
genous. In all regions, the community which has the lowest
and Métis, these regions have patterns of resource use dis-
percentage of Inuit is the community which is the administra-
tinct from those of Inuit and the Yukon First Nations. The
tive and commercial hub of the region and which therefore
most significant difference is the absence of marine mam-
has the largest number of government and business employ-
mals in the harvest of the Yukon and Dene/Métis regions,
ees posted there. This is an indirect indicator of the greater
and the correspondingly higher reliance on terrestrial mam-
extent to which non-Inuit are employed in these activities.
mals and fish.
Within resource categories there are also distinct regional
Dene and Métis
patterns. For example, seal make up three-quarters of the
There are 25 Dene and Métis communities in the western
marine mammal harvest in the Baffin region, while in the In-
Northwest Territories. These communities are located with-
uvialuit and Keewatin regions, beluga whale make up over
in the Fort Smith Region and portions of the Inuvik Region.
half the marine mammal harvest. Terrestrial mammal harvests
Non-indigenous residents compose 57.8% of the population
in the Inuit region are almost exclusively caribou, while in
of these communities. The indigenous residents total 12 780,
the Yukon, moose account for half the total in this category.
including Dene and Métis as well as a small number of Inuit.
Land-use practices are based on the use of different tradi-
The indigenous population of these communities, like other
tional areas by family and extended family groups according
indigenous communities in Canada, is significantly younger
to the season and the type of renewable resource harvested.
than the general Canadian population.
Access to these areas was and is regulated by custom. In parts
The Dene cultural-linguistic groups in these two regions
of the Baffin region, for example, it is customary for people
include the Chipewyan, Dogrib, Slavey, and Tetlit Gwich'in.
who wish to enter an area traditionally used by another family
The 9244 Dene counted in the 1991 Census make up 28.9%
to ask permission of that family prior to traveling in that area.
of the area's population.
Harvesting practices are adapted to local and regional
The northern expansion of the fur trade during the 18th
conditions. Contemporary technologies have been adapted
century, into what is now the Northwest Territories, led to
to traditional ones, and innovations continue to be made.
the arrival of Cree-French Métis people. Many of the Métis
Guns are used for hunting, nets for fishing, and manufac-
voyageurs, who originally acted as guides during this period,
tured metal rakes for berry picking; but harpoons and spears
stayed and allied themselves with local Dene groups. Current-
are also used, and most people pick berries by hand without
ly, the Métis comprise approximately one-tenth of the total
implements. Long-standing practices are often employed
population of the Northwest Territories (Outcrop 1990).
with the assistance of new technologies and materials. In the
According to the 1991 Census, Métis comprised 11.7% of
eastern Arctic, for example, one method of seal hunting in-
the region's population, or 3536 persons. This figure may be
volves approaching the seal on the ice using a blind made of
inaccurately low. The Métis Nation indicates that there are
cloth fabric rather than skins.
closer to 7000 Métis currently in the Northwest Territories
The harvest is shared among individuals on the basis of
(Bill Carpenter pers. comm.).
kinship and other ties. Sharing, gift-giving and exchange are
all elements of the indigenous economy. In recent years, ef-
Yukon First Nations
forts have been made in some areas to promote inter-settle-
There are fourteen First Nations within the Yukon, each with
ment trade in the north, in recognition of both long-standing
its designated historic and current harvesting territories. These
exchange networks and the need to support local economies.
fourteen individual First Nations are represented on a terri-
Other attempts have been made, principally by Inuit, to
torial basis by the Council for Yukon First Nations. The four-
commercialize specialty northern foods, such as Arctic char,
teen First Nations include eight linguistic and cultural areas
outside of the Arctic.
within the Yukon. These are the Gwich'in, Han, Northern
Reliance on renewable resources is strong in the Cana-
Tutchone, Upper Tanana, Southern Tutchone, Tagish, Tlin-
dian Arctic and subarctic. In 1989, total indigenous harvest
git, and Kaska.
levels in the Northwest Territories were estimated at about 5
million kilograms, exclusive of commercial fishing catches
5.3.2.2. Non-indigenous residents
Table 5·5. Harvesting and land-based activities by indigenous adults in
Arctic Canada, by ethnicity (Statistics Canada 1994, 1995).
Nearly half of the residents of the Canadian Arctic today are
Yukon First
non-indigenous, and some have lived in the area for genera-
Inuit
Dene/Métis
Nations
tions. These residents are more likely to live in the territorial
and regional centers, such as Yellowknife, Whitehorse, and
Number of adults
16187
8355
2800
Iqaluit. Hunting and fishing are popular with many non-in-
Activity
digenous residents, but the patterns and extent of use are
Purchased fishing and hunting
rarely as extensive as they are for indigenous peoples of the
equipment in past 12 months
6295
2260
955
region. In terms of exposure to environmental contaminants,
Lived on the land for some
the risks faced by non-indigenous residents will be no higher
time in past 12 months
10295
3020
975
for 1-2 weeks
3305
955
125
than those faced by indigenous residents, and in most cases
3-4 weeks
2815
440
125
will be lower. Therefore, as with the section on Alaska, the
5-20 weeks
3250
760
175
following section concentrates primarily on describing the
>20 weeks
225
265
0
unspecified
290
75
15
activities and lifestyles of the indigenous residents.
Chapter 5 · Peoples of the Arctic
151
Inuvialuit
Baffin
Inuvialuit
Baffin
Kitikmeot
Iñuvik
Kitikmeot
Iñuvik
Labrador
Yukon
Yukon
Territory
Territory
Labrador
Fort Smith
Fort Smith
Keewatin
Keewatin
Nunavik
Nunavik
Inuvialuit
Inuvialuit
Baffin
Kitikmeot
Kitikmeot
Iñuvik
Iñuvik
Yukon
Baffin
Yukon
Territory
Territory
Fort Smith
Fort Smith
Labrador
Keewatin
Keewatin
Labrador
Nunavik
Nunavik
Kg
1 000 000
%
80
500 000
No data
60
40
20
100 000
0
%
80
%
Inuvialuit
50 000
80
60
10 000
60
40
40
20
20
0
0
%
Baffin
Fish
80
Yukon
%
60
Territory
80
%
Terrestrial mammals
40
60
80
20
40
60
Marine mammals
0
20
40
20
Labrador
0
Birds and small game
Keewatin
0
Nunavik
Figure 5·8. Annual indigenous subsistence production in Arctic Canada,
by category, in total kg and percent of harvest (Usher 1986, Usher and
Staples 1988, James Bay and Northern Quebec Native Harvesting Research
Committee 1988, Weihs and Okalik 1989, Gamble 1987, Fabijan 1991).
(Usher and Wenzel 1989, Weihs et al. 1993). This is an aver-
5.3.4. Diet
age production of 232 kilograms per person per year.
Local harvest production represents a substantial contribu-
Numerous studies in recent years have examined dietary
tion to the region's economy. The Inuvialuit, Dene and Métis
patterns and trends in indigenous communities in the Cana-
harvest alone contributes the equivalent of over CDN$ 3 mil-
dian Arctic. These studies show a consistent pattern of wide-
lion, or CDN$ 1074 per capita (Weihs et al. 1993). Other
spread reliance on indigenous foods. Although store-bought
regions of the Canadian Arctic produce even more than this.
foods are also common, nutrient analyses of indigenous
Such extensive harvesting activities require participants to
foods show that these foods contribute significant portions
spend considerable time out on the land, and to make sub-
of daily nutritional intakes (Kuhnlein et al. 1994, 1995a,
stantial investments in fishing and hunting equipment (Table
1995b, 1995c, 1996, Chan et al. 1995, Kuhnlein 1995, Mor-
5·5). The results of these activities are similarly widespread,
rison et al. 1995).
as many people obtain indigenous food either from their
The consumption of indigenous foods is of significant
own activities or those of their family and friends (Statistics
benefit for three primary reasons: indigenous food is more
Canada 1995). These practices are similar across all regions.
nutritious than foods imported from southern Canada, which
152
AMAP Assessment Report
generally have higher levels of sugar and saturated fats; cash
were found among Colville Lake men. Men in the outpost
resources are limited and indigenous food production is a
camps consumed less trout while barrenland caribou was
more economical investment than the purchase of store-
consumed in the greatest quantities. Moose, whitefish, wood-
bought foods; and the sharing of indigenous foods is critical
land caribou, and rabbit were also important (Kuhnlein 1991).
to the reinforcement of the social relationships which are
While individuals in Colville Lake and the outpost camps
central to the subsistence harvesting economy and to indige-
were found to consume much greater quantities of indige-
nous cultures.
nous food than those in Fort Good Hope, other patterns of
Indigenous dietary patterns, like harvesting patterns, vary
use were similar at all three research sites. In Fort Good Hope,
widely from individual to individual, community to commu-
Colville Lake, and the outpost camps, men were found to
nity, region to region, and season to season (Wenzel 1991,
consume more indigenous food than women, and older
Kuhnlein et al. 1995a, 1995c, 1996). Many foods are pre-
adults (41-60 years) consumed more than younger adults
served by drying, smoking, freezing, pickling or fermenting,
(20-40 years) (Kuhnlein 1991).
and immersion in oil, and so may be consumed in other sea-
The overall diet of the respondents included not only in-
sons than those in which they were originally harvested. The
digenous foods, but a significant amount of store-bought
following examples from the Inuit, Dene/Métis, and Yukon
foods. The most frequently noted store-bought foods were:
areas give an idea of the compositions and variations of indi-
beverages (drink powders, sugar, evaporated milk, colas,
genous diets.
whiteners), fats (lard, butter, margarine), bread items and
In a dietary study of Inuit in Aklavik, Northwest Territo-
potatoes, processed meats, and eggs. Frozen market meats
ries, for the period from autumn 1990 to summer 1991,
used most often were pork chops and hamburger. Eggs were
Wein observed that caribou, beluga whale, hare, muskrat,
used often. Fruits and vegetables were used infrequently
whitefish, cisco, burbot, inconnu, Arctic char, ducks, geese,
(Kuhnlein 1991).
cloudberries, cranberries and blueberries were commonly
A similar study of food consumption patterns and the use
used: over 50% of the households consumed these foods
of indigenous food was carried out in the Dene/Métis com-
(Freeman et al. 1992). Wein used frequency of consumption
munity of Fort Smith, Northwest Territories and the predomi-
rather than mass consumed to determine relative importance,
nantly indigenous community of Fort Chipewyan, Alberta,
and found that caribou was the single most frequently eaten
240 km south of Fort Smith (Wein et al. 1991).
species, and that the order of importance went from mam-
At the household level, the overall frequency of use of in-
mals down to fish, birds, and berries. Other plant foods,
digenous food was 319 occasions per year. Animal foods
such as roots of Hedysarum alpinum, stems and leaves of
predominated with a heavy reliance on large mammals,
Rumex arcticus, and willow buds (Salix spp.) were eaten
especially moose and caribou, and fish, especially whitefish.
much less frequently than berries (Freeman et al. 1992).
Except for berries, plant foods were rarely used. Small mam-
Wein also observed seasonal patterns in food utilization
mals and birds were used occasionally.
by people living in Aklavik. Berry picking and drying of
Although young people were found to consume less indi-
caribou meat and fish take place in August; duck and geese
genous food than their elders, other socioeconomic indica-
hunting in September; caribou, Dall sheep, and moose hunt-
tors such as employment status or education had no impact
ing in August and September; and ice fishing after freeze-up
on the use of indigenous food. The factors most likely to in-
in October. In November, trapping of fur-bearers begins and
fluence the frequency of use of indigenous foods were the
continues through the winter. Fishing with nets continues in
presence of a hunter, trapper, or fisherman in the household;
January and February. Before ice break-up in April, muskrat
age; and gender, as males consumed more indigenous food
are trapped for their pelts and are also eaten. Waterfowl re-
than females.
turn as the ice begins to open up in May and are used for
The study concluded that among the households surveyed,
food until they begin to nest. Fishing resumes after ice break-
indigenous food was consumed 6 times per week. Individual
up. Spring is the time for gathering roots. Summer is whal-
consumption averaged 0.5 kg per week and individual in-
ing time and people travel out on the Yukon coast to hunt
digenous food consumption occurred 4.2 times per week.
beluga. Willow tops, bird eggs, and wild rhubarb are some-
On average, animal foods from the land constituted one-
times gathered.
third of the total indigenous food consumed by individuals
Among the Dene and Métis, food sample collections and
of all three generation groups studied.
dietary interviews were conducted for a dietary study in the
An extensive study of the frequency of use of indigenous
communities of Fort Good Hope and Colville Lake from
foods in four Yukon communities, carried out by Wein and
July to August 1988 (Kuhnlein 1991). For women in Fort
Freeman (1995), provides a comprehensive picture of indige-
Good Hope, the indigenous foods consumed in greatest
nous food use by Yukon First Nations. Study communities
quantity were moose in summer, barrenland caribou in win-
included Haines Junction, Old Crow, Teslin, and Whitehorse.
ter, and duck in spring. Other important summer foods were
The study sample was composed of 40 randomly selected
inconnu, whitefish, cisco, and blueberries. In winter, the
households in each of the four communities. A food fre-
other important foods were moose, rabbit, whitefish, and
quency questionnaire based specifically on Yukon First Na-
loche. In spring, woodland caribou was the most important
tions foods was developed for the study, with the assistance
food. The men of Fort Good Hope had similar patterns of
of eight elders and other leaders. The questionnaire listed
consumption for both the summer and winter seasons. In
over 70 species of animals, birds, fish, berries, and plants.
summer they ate mostly moose, inconnu, cisco, and white-
Respondents were also asked to name species not on the
fish, and in winter, barrenland caribou, moose, rabbit, white-
original list. The respondents were asked to report the fre-
fish, loche, and beaver.
quency of consumption by species and season, from fall
Colville Lake women reported eating large quantities of
1991 to summer 1992.
whitefish, barrenland caribou, and ducks in summer. In
In addition, 24-hour diet recall interviews were carried
spring they reported consuming high amounts of trout, bar-
out on four separate days, one in each season, over the year
renland caribou, duck, and loche. For women in the outpost
from fall 1992 to summer 1993. About 80 species were used
camps, the most important foods were trout, rabbit, cari-
as food by the 122 households participating in the study. Of
bou, moose, and whitefish. Similar patterns of consumption
these, some were used by `a very few households.'
Chapter 5 · Peoples of the Arctic
153
All 122 households used at least one species of mammal
Table 5·7 shows the distribution of indigenous and all
and of fish, while virtually all (121) households used moose
adults by income level. These indicate that income levels for
and salmon, berries, and other plant foods. Over 50 house-
indigenous persons are much lower than the territorial and
holds used caribou, hare, ground squirrel, beaver, ducks,
national averages. Many indigenous households are below
grouse, chinook salmon, sockeye salmon, coho salmon,
the Canadian poverty line.
whitefish, lake trout, Arctic grayling, low bush cranberries,
crowberries, blueberries, and Labrador tea. The mean fre-
5.3.6. Housing
quency of consumption of all traditional food species com-
bined was about 409 times annually, or more than once
In most communities, housing is limited and the supply is
daily. Mammals accounted for about half, fish about one-
below the demand. The average number of occupants per
fifth, berries about one-fifth, other plants one-tenth, and
dwelling ranged from 2.9 in the Yukon Territory to 5.3 in
birds one-twentieth (Wein and Freeman 1995).
the Baffin region. The average persons-per-room ranged
from 0.5 in the Yukon to over 1 in the Baffin region, and as
high as 1.7 in the Dene/Métis community of Snare Lake. Al-
5.3.5. Employment
though the housing situation in the Yukon is considerably
Wage employment is generally scarce in indigenous commu-
better than for other regions of the Canadian Arctic, these
nities and unemployment rates are believed to be higher
figures are still higher than the Canadian average of 0.4 per-
than the 1991 census data shown in Table 5·6 would indi-
sons per room. It is thus no surprise that many people are
cate, perhaps as a result of the structure of this question in
on waiting lists for housing.
this census. The high percentage of community residents not
Although census data indicate that most houses have in-
in the workforce is characteristic of northern indigenous
door bathroom facilities, other sources reveal that in many
communities. This pattern is primarily a result of the lack
communities residents bag their human wastes which are
of employment opportunities in these communities.
collected by truck and disposed of in a surface dump or
lake (the so-called `honey-bucket' system) (Outcrop 1990).
Table 5·6. Employment status of indigenous persons in Arctic Canada,
by ethnicity (Statistics Canada 1995).
While the bathroom may be indoors, the sewage disposal
system may not be, and the census question may have mis-
Yukon First
led respondents. Southern-style municipal water and sew-
Inuit
Dene/Métis
Nations
age treatment systems have been introduced in some com-
Employed
7490 (46%)
3715(48%)
no data
munities, but elsewhere, facilities are basic. Drinking water
Unemployed
2310(14%)
1325(17%)
no data
is often obtained from surface waters such as rivers and
Not in labor force
7595(47%)
3045(39%)
no data
Report other, unpaid activities 5795(35%)
2075(27%)
835(31%)
lakes by the truck load (in winter, ice is used) and delivered
to holding tanks in the houses. Many residents obtain their
Although most residents seek out wage employment when
own water from surface sources (Statistics Canada 1994,
it is available within their community, the limited availabil-
1995).
ity of employment for most residents means that it is spora-
dic and short-term. At the same time, the number of residents
5.3.7. Education
who continue to engage in harvesting activities remains high.
For those who are only marginally employed, wage employ-
Table 5·8 shows the educational attainments of indigenous
ment provides the cash required to engage in harvesting acti-
residents of Arctic Canada. Nationwide, additional Arctic
vities. Those with full-time employment, however, also con-
Canada indigenous persons have graduated from university,
tinue to engage in harvesting activities even though they may
but at the time of the census were living, working, or travel-
have to adjust the pattern of their harvesting activities in
ing outside the Arctic.
keeping with the demands of wage employment.
Table 5·8. Highest education level attained by indigenous persons aged
The distribution of employment by sector in the Inuit
15- 49 in Arctic Canada, by ethnicity (Statistics Canada 1994, 1995).
communities is an indicator of the distribution overall in
the Canadian Arctic. In 1994, government was the largest
Yukon
Education Level
Inuit
Dene/Métis
First Nations
single employer within these communities, providing 31.6%
of all jobs. Education and health services provided an addi-
No formal schooling
470
35
0
tional 12.7%. The private sector generated 39% of all jobs
1-8 years
5240
1680
15
Secondary level
4640
1945
1175
in the transportation and communications, retail and whole-
Some post-secondary
1595
585
430
sale, construction, and accommodation sectors. Resource-
Certificate / Diploma
1895
840
555
related sectors such as agriculture, logging, and fishing ac-
University degree
0
5
0
counted for only 2% of jobs, while the mining sector pro-
vided 6% of the employment in these communities (Statis-
The small number of university graduates may reflect the
tics Canada 1995).
fact that there are no universities in the Canadian Arctic.
Four times as many Inuit have obtained non-university post-
Table 5·7. Total income for indigenous and all adults in Arctic Canada, by
secondary educational certificates (excluding trades certifica-
income bracket, by ethnicity and place of residence, 1990 (Canadian dol-
tion) as have graduated from university. Job training pro-
lars) (Statistics Canada 1994, 1995)
grams and community college programs offered by Arctic
Indigenous Adults
All adults
College, Yukon College, or southern colleges are alternatives
Yukon
NW
Yukon
to university programs.
Total income
Dene/
First
Terri-
Terri-
(all sources)
Inuit
Métis Nations
tories
tory
Canada
5.3.8. Language
< $10000
58%
53%
50%
32%
23%
28%
$10000-19999
19%
20%
29%
18%
20%
24%
Indigenous languages remain widely used in the Canadian
$20000-39999
16%
18%
19%
24%
31%
31%
Arctic. Among Inuit, the 1991 Census reported that of
> $40000
6%
9%
2%
27%
25%
17%
21 355 Inuit in the Northwest Territories, 13 495 reported
154
AMAP Assessment Report
Inuktitut as their home language, and 4325 reported knowl-
Hospital facilities are centralized in major cities; people
edge of neither French nor English. In the Dene/Métis and
frequently travel from northern communities to Edmonton,
Yukon regions, the patterns are similar.
Winnipeg, Ottawa, Montreal, and Yellowknife for medical
treatment. Traveling clinics make regular visits to communi-
ties to provide specialized health care services which are not
5.3.9. Mortality and morbidity
locally or regionally available.
Life expectancies for the combined indigenous and non-in-
digenous population in the Yukon and Northwest Territo-
ries are below the Canadian average. Male life expectancy is
5.4. Denmark: Greenland
71.9 years in the north, and 74.6 years nationwide. Female
5.4.1. Geography
life expectancy is 75.9 years in the north, and 80.9 years na-
tionwide. The northern figures have been rising more quick-
The Greenlandic name for Greenland is Kalaallit Nunaat,
ly, however. The life expectancy of Inuit in 1941-42 was 29
`Land of the Greenlanders.' Covering nearly 2.2 million
years, and had more than doubled by 1978-82, when it
km2, Greenland is the world's largest island, and is one of
reached 66 years (Young 1994).
the three countries (with Denmark and the Faeroe Islands)
Infant mortality rates are also higher in the north, but im-
within the Kingdom of Denmark. Two of the 179 members
proving rapidly. In the Northwest Territories, for the period
of the Danish Parliament come from Greenland.
1961-66, the rate was 144 per 1000, compared with 26 per
Internally, Greenland is governed by the Home Rule, a par-
1000 for Canadians as a whole. In 1981-85, the rate for
liamentary democracy with 31 seats and headed by a pre-
Northwest Territories Inuit was 28 per 1000, compared
mier. The Home Rule can assume responsibility for all mat-
with 9 per 1000 for all of Canada (Young 1994).
ters except foreign and security policy, the monetary system,
Cancer patterns in the Canadian Arctic differ from those
mineral and hydrocarbon exploration and exploitation, and
for the country as a whole. For females in the Northwest
some aspects of the judicial system. In 1992, the Home Rule
Territories, breast cancers occur at two thirds the national
assumed the last of its potential fields, the health care system.
rate. This has been attributed to differences in breast feeding
practices and in diet. Cervical and ovarian cancer, however,
5.4.2. Population
were more common among women in the Northwest Terri-
tories than for women in Canada as a whole. For males in
Kalaallit (plural of Kalaalleq) is the collective name of Green-
the Northwest Territories, lung cancer was more common
land's indigenous peoples, who are Inuit and belong to three
(30% of cancers) than in men nationwide (19%), but pro-
groups, the Kitaamiut (the West Greenlanders), the Tunumiut
state cancer was less common (6% compared with 14%).
(the East Greenlanders), and the Inughuit (or `Polar Eskimos'
These differences have been largely attributed to the patterns
in North Greenland). There are approximately four Tunumiut
for Inuit and Dene rather than to the patterns for non-indi-
and fifty Kitaamiut to each Inughuit (Fægteborg 1995-96).
genous Arctic residents (Freitag et al. 1990).
On January 1, 1994, the total population of Greenland
One of the benefits of the continued reliance of an indige-
was 55 419. Of these, 48 029 were born in Greenland and
nous-food diet appears to be a reduced risk of certain other
7390 were born elsewhere, most in Denmark. The indige-
health problems. Indigenous groups in the Canadian Arctic
nous population had 23 538 females and 24 491 males.
have among the lowest age-standardized prevalence of dia-
The non-indigenous population had 2257 females and 5133
betes in the country. Diabetes is one of the more prominent
males. The distribution and composition of Greenland's
health risks associated with acculturation.
population as of January 1, 1994 is shown in Figure 5·9.
One of the more serious threats to human health among
The country is divided into 18 municipalities. Fifteen are
indigenous communities is the extremely high prevalence of
in West Greenland, one in North Greenland, and two in
smoking (Statistics Canada 1995). A 1987 study of smoking
East Greenland. None of the municipalities is landlocked.
behavior among students in the Northwest Territories found
Each municipality consists of an administrative town and a
`exceedingly high' rates among indigenous youths. By age 19,
number of villages and small settlements.
63% of Indian youths were current smokers as compared
Of the 48 029 native-born Greenlanders, 38 186 lived in
with only 43% of non-indigenous youths (Young 1994).
the towns and 9587 lived in the villages. The remaining 256
Given the current level of smoking among indigenous
persons lived at radio and weather stations and other such
adults, and the apparent trend in smoking among young
outposts. The Danish population primarily lived in the towns,
people, smoking is and will continue to be a major health
with only 224 living in the villages.
risk in these communities. Smoking is believed to be the
In 1994, Nuuk, the capital and largest city of Greenland,
most likely explanation for the apparent increase in lung
had 12 935 inhabitants. Nuuk also has the largest number of
cancer among Inuit in the Northwest Territories between
non-indigenous inhabitants.
1980-84 (Freitag et al. 1990). Smoking must also be consid-
ered as a potentially confounding variable in health studies
5.4.3. Hunting, fishing, and gathering
related to contaminant exposures among Inuit and Dene.
Approximately 20% of the population is directly or indirectly
dependent on hunting activities. The majority of these live in
5.3.10 . Health care
the five hunting municipalities. Both professional and nonpro-
The improvements in health among Inuit are attributable in
fessional hunters and fishermen must obtain a game license.
part to better medical health care. In the 1950s, nursing sta-
Professional hunters and fishermen are those whose primary
tions were created by the federal government in many com-
occupation is hunting and fishing. Workers unemployed more
munities, providing the first regular access to western-style
than 125 days per year, senior citizens, and institutions where
medical care for most Inuit. These nursing stations are now
hunting is a primary element of the educational or economic
managed by the territorial and provincial governments,
program, can also obtain professional game licenses.
sometimes in cooperation with Inuit agencies created under
The most important resources for the hunters are ringed
land claims or public governmental agreements.
seal and harp seal, but a wide variety of other species are
Chapter 5 · Peoples of the Arctic
155
In the south of West Greenland, polar bear are only taken
occasionally, and in central West Greenland very rarely. Fig-
ure 5·10 shows similarities and differences in seasonal hunt-
ing patterns between two West Greenland communities, Ike-
rasaarsuk and Qeqertarsuaq, approximately 130 km apart.
While sharing of subsistence foods today is usually lim-
ited to participants of a certain hunt, hunters and small fish-
erman engage in three types of trade: selling to the local pro-
cessing plant, selling at the local outdoor market (brædtet or
kalaalimineerniarfik), and selling to institutions, shops, and
Avanersuaq
other commercial concerns. Within the fishing industry all
products are sold to the major processing plants.
Food sold at the brædtet varies throughout the country.
In Qeqertarsuaq, the products sold from September 1989 to
July 1990 were various fish (26%), seal meat (22%), beluga
Upernavik
and narwhal meat (14%), caribou meat (14%), various birds
(9%), minke whale meat (8%), and berries and other plants
Ittoqqortoormiit
(6%) (Caulfield 1991). This practice, which has evolved since
Uummannaq
the 18th century, is promoted by the Greenland Home Rule
government as a means to provide nutritious food and sus-
tainable economic opportunities for local hunters (Marquardt
Qeqertarsuaq
Ilulissat
and Caulfield 1996).
Aasiaat
Qasigiannguit
Kangaatsiaq
5.4.4.
Ammassalik
Diet
Sisimiut
A survey in the spring of 1994 indicates that 90% of hunters
and small fishermen consume their own products: 44% eat
Maniitsoq
them daily; 13%, three to four times a week; 15%, one or
Number of inhabitants
two times a week; and the remaining 28%, less often. For
15 000
Nuuk
the Inuit population as a whole, 31% eat local products
10 000
5 000
(Inuit foods) daily; 22%, three to four times a week; 25%,
2 000
at least one or two times per week; and 22% eat Inuit foods
Paamiut
less often (Skydsbjerg 1994). Another 1994 survey based on
Ivituut
Narsaq
1728 interviews indicates that 63% of village residents eat
Qaqortoq
Indigenous population
Inuit foods daily during summer. In the towns, 26% ate
Inuit foods this often (Bjerregaard et al. 1995).
Non-indigenous population
Nanortalik
In south Greenland, sheep farming provides a local sup-
ply of lamb meat. The demand is greater than the yearly
Figure 5·9. Total and indigenous populations of Greenland, by munici-
pality, 1994 (Opgørelser fra Grønlands Statistiske Kontor 1994).
production, however, and lamb meat is imported from Ice-
land and New Zealand. Beef, pork, and chicken are im-
taken. Whaling is part of the hunting tradition and still has
ported from Denmark.
great importance to the Greenlandic society. In International
Most Greenlanders believe that Inuit food has great im-
Whaling Commission (IWC) terminology, Greenland's whal-
portance for their health and well-being. The types of foods
ing is Aboriginal Subsistence Whaling, satisfying the local sub-
eaten depends on their availability. Certain foods, like seal
sistence need. Neither the fin whale nor the minke whale, the
meat, are available throughout the year. Berries, in contrast,
two species taken in accordance with IWC regulations and
are available only in August, September, and October (see
quotas, is an endangered species. Small cetaceans like the
Figure 5·10). One study found that the three Inuit foods
narwhal and the beluga are not under IWC authority, but
considered most delicious are mattak (skin and blubber of
hunting is regulated nationally and bilaterally with Canada.
whales), dried cod, and thick-billed murre.
Hunting and fishing practices differ from location to loca-
Among hunter families in West Greenland and East Green-
tion. Traditional hunting methods are rare outside of Ava-
land, the preparation of food, including the flensing of seals,
nersuaq, where kayak and harpoon are still in use, especially
is usually performed by the women. In North Greenland,
in connection with the narwhal hunt. Generally, hunters use
men flense the seals. Inuit foods are still mostly prepared in
modern hunting equipment such as rifles, dinghies, and speed-
the traditional way by being boiled. Among the younger
boats. There are three categories of fishermen. The seagoing
generation, many European cooking traditions have been
fishing fleet consists of boats larger than 80 gross tons, the
accepted. Although extremely expensive, vegetables are
coastal fishing fleet has boats from five to 75 gross tons, and
often served as part of a traditional dinner.
dinghies are less than five tons.
While cold storage plants are found in most of the vil-
The areas and species used for hunting and fishing vary
lages, traditional food storage practices continue in some vil-
by location and season. In some areas, hunters have to travel
lages. In the towns, almost every private home has its own
far to harvest certain resources. For example, caribou are
deep freezer.
usually hunted in August and September in the deep fjord
areas far from the villages. Other resources like certain seals,
5.4.5. Employment
fish, and birds may be available close to the village or town.
Walrus, minke whales, and fin whales may only be available
In the villages, 45% of the male residents are hunters and
at sea or in the mouths of the fjords. Polar bear are hunted
fishermen. In the towns, only 19% are thus employed. Of
regularly in Avanersuaq, Ittoqqortoormiit, and Ammassalik.
the work force, including men and women, 14% are directly
156
AMAP Assessment Report
Ikerasaarsuk Kangaatsiaq West Greenland
Qeqertarsuaq municipality West Greenland
(Hertz 1977)
(Caulfield 1991)
Mammals
J
F M A M J
J A
S
O
N
D
J
F
M A M J
J
A
S
O
N
D
Ringed seal
Harp seal
Hooded seal
Bearded seal
Harbor seal
Walrus
Beluga whale
Narwhal
Minke whale
Fin whale
Caribou
Arctic fox
Arctic hare
Birds
Common eider
Thick-billed murre
Black guillemot
Dovekie
Sea gulls
Arctic tern
Geese
Eggs
Rock ptarmigan
Fish
Capelin
Atlantic wolffish
Atlantic cod
Greenland halibut
Arctic char
Atlantic salmon
Rough dab
Greenland cod
Greenland shark
Qeqertarsuaq
Shrimp
Berries
Kangaatsiaq
Crowberry
Bog blueberry
Figure 5·10. Seasonal resource utilization patterns, by month, for two communities in West Greenland.
involved in hunting and fishing activities, 3% are self-em-
in Greenland are more likely to have lower incomes than
ployed, and the remaining 83% are wage earners.
persons born elsewhere, and residents of towns are more
Approximately 65% of all wage earners are employed in
likely to have higher incomes than residents of villages.
the public sector. This high percentage is due in part to the
fact that a major portion of the commercial fishing industry,
5.4.6. Housing
transportation, technical plants, and commercial warehouses
are owned by the Home Rule Government. The Home Rule
A combination of the Arctic climate and high transportation
Government has announced that these industries will be
costs makes housing very expensive in Greenland. As a re-
transformed into joint stock companies with private and
sult, there is a chronic housing shortage. For Greenland as a
public capital. Of public employees, 17% are non-indige-
whole, the average persons-per-room is over 1; in the Ittoq-
nous, as are the majority of high-range clerks.
qortoormiit municipality, the figure is 1.4. In the larger towns,
At present, no exploitation of mineral resources is taking
large apartment houses were built in the 1960s and in the
place in Greenland. The last mining activity stopped in 1990,
1970s. Recent construction has favored row houses and sin-
when the lead-zinc mine at Maarmorilik was exhausted. In
gle-family houses. In the smaller towns, apartment houses
North Greenland, a known resource of zinc may bring min-
are uncommon. In the villages, most residences are small
ing back to Greenland. Though there are known reserves of
single-family houses.
gold, platinum, uranium, oil, and iron, it has not yet been
economically or ecologically prudent to develop them.
5.4.7. Education
In 1991, the total labor force was 33 313 persons, with
an average income of DKK 130 475. However, there are
Schools are run at the municipality level, in accordance with
considerable discrepancies between the incomes of persons
policies established by the Home Rule Government. The
born in Greenland and those born elsewhere, and between
school system consists of a preparation class (1st grade), a
residents of the towns and those of the villages. Persons born
basic school (2nd to 9th grade), a continuation school (10th
Chapter 5 · Peoples of the Arctic
157
and 11th grade), and a course class (12th grade). School at-
Alcohol abuse and marijuana smoking are considered
tendance is compulsory for nine years. Most schools are able
major social and health problems, largely due to their high
to offer this, but in certain villages, the children are sent to
prevalence. Other illegal drug use is minimal.
boarding schools in the towns to complete their education.
For further education, there is a wide range of vocational
5.4.10 . Health care
training available throughout Greenland. University prepa-
ratory schools exist in Aasiaat, Nuuk, and Qaqortoq. Nuuk
The health care system today is organized in 17 medical dis-
has both a teacher-training college and a university. Educa-
tricts (the 18 municipalities except Ivittuut, which is served by
tion levels in Greenland are shown in Table 5·9.
the naval hospital). Each district has a small hospital. The sole
exception is Kangaatsiaq, which has only primary health care,
Table 5·9. Education levels in Greenland, by birthplace, gender, and age,
and so patients who need hospital facilities are transported to
by percent of adult population (Skydsbjerg 1994).
the hospital in Aasiaat. An outpatient clinic connected with
< 7 years
7-9 years
9-12 years
University
each hospital provides primary health care, which constitutes
school
(general
(extended
preparatory
the majority of work in the medical districts. The medical ser-
attendance
education)
education)
school
vice in each district also includes health care in the villages.
Total population
23
58
12
7
The Nuuk hospital offers some degree of specialization
Birthplace
and serves as the central hospital for the whole country. Pa-
Greenland
26
62
9
3
tients who cannot be treated here are referred to the Uni-
Denmark
3
29
32
36
versity Hospital in Copenhagen. All treatment, whether out-
Greenland-born
patient or in hospital, is free. Prescribed medicine is free,
Males
26
65
6
3
Females
26
60
11
3
and so are most medical appliances. There are no private
Age 18-29
9
74
11
6
practices in Greenland.
30- 39
22
66
10
2
40- 49
31
56
11
2
50- 59
50
47
2
1
60+
55
41
4
0
5.5.
Iceland
5.5.1 Geography
5.4.8. Language
Iceland is the second largest island in Europe, and is located
in the North Atlantic just south of the Arctic Circle. The to-
The Greenlandic language is called Kalaallisut and is an Iñu-
tal area of the country is 103 000 km2, all of which is con-
piaq (East Eskimo) language with several local dialects. Ka-
sidered to be in the Arctic.
laallisut is spoken throughout West Greenland. The Tunu-
According to the Book of Settlement (1972), Iceland was
miut and the Inughuit speak dialects that differ from Kalaal-
settled by pagan Norse between the years 874 and 930.
lisut, though neither is a written language. Kalaallisut is the
Iceland was thus the last European country to be settled.
official language of Greenland, but in accordance with the
Early on, law and order were established in the country and
Home Rule agreement, Danish must be taught in the schools.
in 930, the Althing (General Assembly) was formed. Its es-
In all official matters, both languages are used. In schools
tablishment inaugurated the Icelandic Commonwealth (Lin-
and churches, in administrative matters, on radio and televi-
dal 1974, Njardvik 1978), a republic which lasted until
sion, and in the newspaper, Kalaallisut is used.
1262 when Iceland came under Norwegian rule. In the late
fourteenth century, Iceland came under Danish rule and this
5.4.9. Mortality and morbidity
colonization lasted until 1904 when Iceland gained home
rule. In 1944, Iceland declared itself independent of Den-
The average lifespan in Greenland (1986-1990) was 68.4 years
mark, establishing the Republic of Iceland (Rosenblad and
for women, and 60.7 years for men. This is substantially lower
Sigurdardottir-Rosenblad 1993).
than life expectancy in Denmark, and is of concern since it
Today Iceland is a republic with a parliamentary govern-
has remained stagnant for decades. Mortality from accidents
ment. A president serves as head of state. Since 1987, the Al-
and suicides is high in both sexes, but highest in young men.
thing has had 63 members, elected by a system of propor-
The suicide rate is increasing. Mortality from ischemic heart
tional representation.
disease is lower than in Denmark, while mortality from
strokes is higher. Among cancers, the incidence and mortal-
ity of lung and other tobacco-related cancers is very high.
5.5.2. Population
Infant mortality has been decreasing steadily for more
Icelanders are both of Norwegian and Celtic origin. Scholars
than 40 years, but is still considerably higher than in Den-
disagree about the Celtic strain in the Icelandic peoples. How-
mark. Due to the small population, the rate fluctuates annu-
ever, evidence from physical anthropology and comparisons
ally, but during the 1990s has been around 25 per 1000 live
of blood groups indicate this affiliation (Steffensen 1975,
births. Regional variations are high, with lowest infant mor-
Sigurdsson 1988).
tality in Nuuk and other towns and villages on the central
Iceland is the most sparsely populated country in Europe
west coast, and much higher rates in remote municipalities
with an average of 2.4 inhabitants per km2. On December 1,
and villages.
1994, the total population of Iceland was 266 783, of whom
In spite of local outbreaks, infectious diseases such as AIDS
133 781 were males and 133 002 females (Figure 5·11). In
and tuberculosis seem to be under control. Meningitis and
1880, there were only three towns in Iceland, where 5% of
hepatitis B are relatively common.
the population lived. By 1991, there were 31 towns of 1000
Smoking is common in Greenland, for both sexes and
inhabitants or more, and by 1994, 91.5% of the population
among all age groups. A recent survey found that 82% of
lived in towns or villages of more than 200 people, while 8.5%
Inuit men and 78% of Inuit women are currently smokers.
lived in rural districts. This pattern is similar to that of other
In the Disko Bay area, 62-70% of pregnant women smoke
industrialized countries and in the future it is estimated that
(Bjerregaard et al. 1995).
most Icelanders will live in the greater Reykjavik area.
158
AMAP Assessment Report
Arc
economy has affected government revenue. Iceland has not
tic Circle
escaped the global trend toward higher unemployment. In
September 1995, unemployment was recorded at 3.6%, con-
Vestfirdir
tinuing an upward trend since the mid-1980s (Statistics Ice-
land 1995). However, it is not uncommon for one person to
Nordurland
Nordurland
hold two or three jobs. International statistics show that the
Vesturland
Vestra
Eystra
Icelandic population has been willing to supply more labor
Austurland
per capita, averaging 46.6 hours work per week in 1994,
Capital Region
than is customary in other countries with similar income.
Reykjanes
The Icelandic economy has undergone rapid restructuring
Sudurland
since the end of the nineteenth century. Within a period of a
few decades, the country was transformed from a traditional
Number of inhabitants
farming economy to an industrialized market economy. The
200 000
move away from low-productivity agriculture into a mod-
ern, diversified society was led by the fishing industry (Jons-
100 000
son 1984, Snaevarr 1993a).
50 000
20 000
At present, the fisheries are the cornerstone of the econ-
10 000
omy. Fish and fish products constitute about 80% of Ice-
land's export industry and account for about 25% of gross
Figure 5·11. Population of Iceland, by geographic division, 1994 (based
national product. The total Icelandic fisheries catch in 1994
on administrative districts as of July 1, 1995) (Statistics Iceland, monthly
was 1.5 million tonnes. Despite its overwhelming impor-
statistics).
tance, the fisheries sector employs only 11.6% of the work-
Compared with neighboring countries, Iceland's popula-
force, 4.7% in fishing and 6.9% in processing.
tion is young. In 1994, 10.8% of the population was 65
For decades cod has been the single most important sea-
years old or older, and 24.8% was 15 years old or younger.
food species, accounting in recent years for some 40% of the
The Icelandic population is culturally and socially homo-
fisheries sector's export revenues. Other important species
geneous. There has been little immigration to Iceland, and
are redfish, saithe, shrimp, and haddock, together with
no coherent minority groups have formed. In 1994, the num-
Greenland halibut, ocean catfish, scallops, Norway lobster,
ber of citizens from foreign countries totaled 4715, mostly
capelin, and herring. The most important fishing gear types
from Scandinavia and other European countries. In recent
are bottom trawl, gillnets, long line, and purse seine (Arna-
years, other nationalities have immigrated, some as political
son 1995). The Icelandic fishing fleet is among the best
refugees.
equipped in the world. It has around 1000 vessels, including
Iceland's infrastructure is similar to that of other Scandi-
100 stern trawlers. Increasingly, fish processing has been
navian countries. It consists of an extensive welfare system,
shifting from land-based facilities to freezer-trawlers.
practically free education, health services with nominal fees,
About 5% of the work force is employed in the agricul-
a social security system, and a national pension plan. Due to
tural sector. Overproduction has been a great problem in agri-
the economic recession of recent years, some of the welfare
culture for decades. Thus, quota systems are in force for milk
services have been limited or fees have been introduced,
and some other products (Sigthorsson 1987, Snaevarr 1993b).
mainly in the health sector.
Cultivated areas in Iceland cover only 1% of the country.
Agriculture in Iceland is based mainly on grass cultivation and
animal husbandry. Sheep and dairy cattle are the main live-
5.5.3. Diet
stock. Reindeer live wild in the highlands in the east of the
The Icelandic diet is typically western in most respects. Never-
country and are hunted during restricted periods in the autumn.
theless, it retains some characteristics of a subarctic region.
In recent decades, barley and oats have been grown on
Fish, meat, and milk are traditionally the main foods pro-
experimental farms in the south of Iceland with fairly good
duced in Iceland and this local production affects what peo-
success. Potatoes and turnips are also grown and there is ex-
ple consume. Icelanders consume more fish than any other
tensive greenhouse cultivation of tomatoes, cucumbers, and
nation in Europe (73 g/day/person) and foods of animal ori-
flowers in areas with geothermal energy supplies.
gin are a large component of the Icelandic diet. Young peo-
Around 17.5% of the Icelandic work force is employed in
ple consume the least amount of fish while people over fifty
manufacturing industries, including the 6.9% in fish proces-
consume the most (Steingrimsdottir et al. 1991). Except for
sing mentioned above (Snaevarr 1993c). Other industries in-
occasional barley and oat cultivation, grains and fruits are
clude manufacture of woolen goods, fishing equipment and
not grown on Iceland, and vegetable production is mostly
computer software, and biotechnology (Rosenblad and Si-
limited to potatoes and greenhouse plants. Consequently,
gurdardottir-Rosenblad 1993).
Icelanders eat fewer vegetables than most European coun-
Iceland has vast hydropower and geothermal energy re-
tries, even though the economy allows substantial import of
serves, which are used for electricity and heating, and in
various foods. The diet of Icelanders is unusually rich in
energy-intensive industries such as fertilizer production and
protein (17.4%) and fat (41%). Unlike trends in many other
aluminum smelting. All towns, villages, and farms receive
western countries, this is not entirely a modern development
electricity from public supply utilities, and the National
since the Icelandic diet has always had some of these charac-
Power Company has built all of the largest hydropower sta-
teristics (Steingrimsdottir 1993).
tions in the country. Geothermal energy is mainly used to
heat houses and the majority of the Icelandic population
(86%) make use of geothermal space heating (Ragnarsson
5.5.4. Employment
1995). Houses in Reykjavík, and in a dozen other towns, are
The gross domestic product per capita and the living stan-
heated with natural water from hot springs. Due to its inex-
dard are similar to those of other Nordic countries. How-
pensive, renewable, and pollution-free energy sources, Ice-
ever, during the last few years a lack of real growth in the
land has become an increasingly competitive and desirable
location for foreign industrial ventures.
Chapter 5 · Peoples of the Arctic
159
Table 5·10. The ten most common causes of death in Iceland, by category (with ICD-9 codes), per thousand, 1991 and 1992 (Directorate General of
Public Health, unpubl. data).
1991
1992
per thousand
per thousand
per thousand
per thousand
Category
Total deaths
deaths
of population
Total deaths
deaths
of population
Heart diseases (391, 392.0, 393-398, 402,
404, 410-416, 420-429)
604
336.3
2.34
573
333.3
2.19
Cancer (140-208, 230-234)
446
248.3
1.73
429
249.6
1.64
Cerebrovascular diseases (430-438)
176
98.0
0.68
148
86.1
0.57
Injury and Poisoning (800-999)
121
67.4
0.47
136
79.1
0.52
Pneumonia and Influenza (480-486)
116
64.6
0.45
106
61.7
0.41
Diabetes mellitus (250)
18
10.0
0.07
Chronic bronchitis (491)
18
10.0
0.07
20
11.6
0.08
Emphysema (492)
16
8.9
0.06
35
20.4
0.13
Sudden death. cause unknown (798)
16
8.9
0.06
Parkinson's disease (332)
14
7.8
0.05
Other diseases of upper respiratory tract (478)
23
13.4
0.09
Congenital Anomalies (741-759)
16
9.3
0.06
Atherosclerosis (440)
14
8.1
0.05
Other unspecified
251
139.8
0.97
219
127.4
0.84
indicates no data
5.5.5. Housing
5.5.7. Language
Icelanders spend a greater proportion of their income on
Icelandic is the national language, and has always been
housing than do citizens of neighboring countries. Thus,
an important focus for Icelandic culture and society. It is
housing in Iceland is of a very high standard. The housing
thought to have changed very little from the original tongue
stock is both relatively new, solidly built, and spacious (av-
spoken by the Norse settlers. The Icelandic language lacks
erage size of about 120 m2). Most houses are well insulated
distinct dialects and has two unique letters of its own (Ro-
with double-glazed windows. The climate makes such hous-
senblad and Sigurdardottir-Rosenblad 1993). Outside Ice-
ing desirable, since Icelanders spend a lot of time at home,
land there are only a few thousand people who speak Ice-
especially during the long winter months (Gislason 1973).
landic, mostly as a result of past emigration to Canada, the
Around 63% of Icelandic families live in dwellings which
United States, Sweden, Denmark and Belgium.
contain more than one room per family member (excluding
Much effort is put into preserving the language and pre-
kitchen and living-room), and have an average size of 48 m2
venting too much foreign language influence. Danish is the
per inhabitant. As a comparison, the corresponding figures
second language taught at school and English the third,
for Norway, Sweden, and Finland are 50%, 37%, and 18%.
however Icelanders prefer to speak English to Danish, even
Another special feature of the Icelandic housing situation is
when they travel to the Scandinavian countries.
the very high owner-occupant ratio. A recent study indicates
that around 84% of people in the 25-70 years age group
5.5.8. Mortality and morbidity
own their dwellings (Ministry for Foreign Affairs 1995).
Iceland has higher fertility rates than most Nordic countries,
at 2.143% in 1994 (Bender 1994). However, the birth rate
5.5.6. Education
has declined sharply in recent years and seems to be stabiliz-
The Icelandic school system is mainly based on the Primary
ing around 17-18 per 1000. With a life expectancy of 77.8
School Act of 1974 and is similar to that in the other Nordic
years, Icelanders have the prospect of a lifespan longer than
countries. School attendance is compulsory between the ages
that enjoyed in most other countries. The maternal mortality
seven and sixteen. Admission at the age of six has, however,
rate is 2 per 100 000 live births, and infant mortality is 6.0
become a standard. The upper secondary level covers the
per 1000 live births.
ages sixteen to twenty years, and after that students can fur-
The older generation now living in Iceland has experi-
ther their studies at universities or other institutions of high-
enced a tremendous change in general health. In 1910, in-
er learning, within the country or abroad. There are two
fectious diseases caused the most mortality, and until the
universities in the country, one in the capital and a smaller
1930s tuberculosis was one of the biggest killers in Iceland.
one in Akureyri which mainly offers industry-related sub-
Today, lifestyle related diseases, such as cancer and cardio-
jects, such as fisheries and management.
vascular disease, are the biggest killers (Table 5·10). AIDS
There are no charges to students for compulsory school-
is on the rise: through November 1995, a total of 91 cases
ing. At upper secondary level there is a small enrollment fee,
of HIV-infected individuals had been reported. A total of
and comparatively low registration fees are payable at the
29 individuals have died of AIDS in Iceland (Olafsson and
universities and state-run colleges. There are only a few pri-
Briem 1995).
vate schools in the country and they charge tuition fees. Stu-
Other social problems familiar in the western world
dents attending university or college, both in Iceland and
are on the rise in Iceland, such as drug abuse, especially
abroad, are eligible for educational loans from the Govern-
among young people, thefts, and violent crimes. The great-
ment's Student Loan Fund. Many students seek M.A. and
est social ailment is probably alcoholism, and considerable
Ph.D. degrees in foreign universities, mostly in Scandinavia,
amounts of money are used to finance highly specialized
Great Britain, and the United States.
institutions to assist people recovering from alcohol abuse.
The enrollment rate for the 6-23 age cohort is 81%, and in
Alcohol was prohibited in Iceland from 1909 to 1935, al-
1992 persons aged 25 and older had an average of 9.2 years of
though wine was allowed after 1922. Sale of strong beer
schooling (Josepsson 1987, Ministry for Foreign Affairs 1995).
was only made legal in 1987.
160
AMAP Assessment Report
Faeroes have been associated with Denmark. In 1856, the
5.5.9. Health care
Royal Trade Monopoly was abolished, and the Faeroes be-
Health standards and health services in Iceland are similar
gan a period of rapid expansion and modernization, based
to those of the other Scandinavian countries. During the last
largely upon exports of fish.
few years, due to the economic recession, new fees have been
In the late 19th century, a Faeroese nationalist movement
introduced in the health sector. At present, health coverage
began, seeking to protect the Faeroese language and culture
is not complete and patients need to pay part of their med-
against a growing Danish influence. This led, eventually, to
ical care and a large share of dental care.
an agreement in 1948 under which the Faeroe Islands are a
The country is divided into eight medical areas with pop-
home rule area within the Kingdom of Denmark. This is the
ulations ranging from 10 000 to 100 000, and 27 primary
same as the more recent agreement between Denmark and
care districts. The health districts contain over eighty health
Greenland.
centers which offer a wide range of services, such as twenty-
Today, internal affairs are governed by the 27-member
four-hour practice and home visits, dentistry, rehabilitation,
Løgting, or parliament. Areas of governance which are con-
prenatal, infant, and child care, mental health care, and so-
trolled by the Faeroese authorities are fully financed by the
cial work. The health centers serve as a referral mechanism
Faeroes. The Danish Government provides funds for affairs
to the hospital system. Specialized operations and transplants
under their control, such as the police and judicial systems.
are referred to hospitals in the United States and in Scandi-
The costs of joint responsibilities are shared. Social legisla-
navia (Directorate General of Public Health 1994).
tion is based on the Danish model.
By the end of 1992, there were six specialized hospitals in
Iceland, seventeen general hospitals, thirty nursing homes and
5.6.3. Diet
nursing wards, three rehabilitation institutions, one patient ho-
tel, and five institutions for alcoholics. At this time, there were
Recent surveys of Faeroese adults showed a daily con-
,
15.0 beds per 1000 inhabitants. This is very close to the re-
sumption of 72 g of fish, 12 g of whale meat, and 7 g of
commended number of beds, given the age distribution of the
whale blubber (Vestergaard and Zachariassen 1987). Fish
population. However, the availability of these beds is unevenly
and pilot whale constitute 44% and 9.5% of Faeroese din-
distributed across the country. Thus, there is a shortage of
ner meals, respectively. Cod is the main fish consumed in
beds in Reykjavik, but an excess in small hospitals in rural areas
the Faeroes.
which cannot offer specialized treatment (Matthiasson 1994).
Faeroese whaling, known as grind, is an integral part
Currently, Iceland has no shortage of doctors (one for
of Faeroese culture (Sanderson 1994). This practice has
every 354 inhabitants) and other health personnel, and may
taken place for centuries, as long-finned pilot whales are
even be experiencing hidden unemployment since many spe-
driven into shallow waters to be killed, butchered, and
cialists who have been studying abroad and wish to return
distributed equally among the residents of the district.
home cannot get suitable jobs. About 88% of the total health
The traditional measures of whale shares are still used,
care costs in Iceland are public. Many voluntary organiza-
and as the dietary survey noted above showed, whale
tions work to combat various diseases, such as cancer, heart
meat and blubber are a significant portion of the Faeroese
diseases, mental illness, and alcoholism. Some of these organ-
diet. Grind provides the majority of meat production in
izations run their own rehabilitation centers.
the Faeroes, and accounts for one-quarter of meat con-
sumption. Despite pressure from anti-whaling groups,
grind continues today as a significant activity in Faeroese
5.6. Denmark: The Faeroe Islands
culture, diet, and community.
5.6.1. Geography
5.6.4. Employment
The Faeroe Islands are located in the North Atlantic Ocean
between Iceland and the United Kingdom. Of the 18 islands
The Faeroese economy is overwhelmingly dependent upon
in the Faeroes, 17 are inhabited. The total land area is 1399
fisheries. Fishing, fish farming, and fish processing account
km2, and the largest island is Streymoy, with an area of
for one-fourth of gross national income, and nearly all ex-
373.5 km2. The capital and largest city, Tórshavn, is on
ports. To a great extent, other industries are suppliers to
Streymoy. The entire archipelago is considered to be within
the fishing industry, and like the public sector, are highly
the Arctic for consideration in this chapter.
dependent upon the income derived from the fishing indus-
try. Fluctuations in fish prices, size of the fish catch, ex-
change rates, and the relative prices of imported supplies
5.6.2 Population
such as oil are of critical importance to the health of the
The population of the Faeroes on January 1, 1995 was ca.
Faeroese economy.
43 700. This is a ten-fold increase over the course of the pre-
In 1994, about half the catch of the Faeroese fleet was
vious two centuries, but recent trends have been downward.
taken in Faeroese waters. The main commercial fish here are
The birth rate, at 1.5%, remains relatively high, and with a
cod, haddock, coalfish, blue whiting, redfish, tusk, ling, blue
mortality rate of 0.8%, gives a natural increase of 0.7%. In the
ling, Greenland halibut, mackerel, and herring. Most of
1970s and 1980s, net immigration created additional popula-
these are landed in the Faeroes for processing. Fish landed in
tion growth. Since 1989, however, there has been substantial
the Faeroes are either exported fresh, or processed into fresh
net emigration, resulting in a net population decline in 1994
and frozen filets and salt fish in factories located throughout
of 3.7%. From 1990 to 1994, the population declined 8.7%.
the islands. Some fish are processed into fish meal and oil, or
There are about 100 towns and villages in the Faeroes, of
into feed for the fish farms. The principal export markets are
which the largest is the capital, Tórshavn, with a population
Denmark, the United States, several European countries, and
of 15 000. The second largest town is Klaksvík, with a pop-
Japan.
ulation of 4600.
Fish farming is very productive in the Faeroes. In 1993,
The Faeroese are descended from Norwegian settlers, who
the breeding population of farmed salmon and trout pro-
replaced an Irish settlement around year 800. Since 1380, the
duced 16 000 tonnes for export.
Chapter 5 · Peoples of the Arctic
161
including such national systems as education and health care,
5.6.5. Housing
will be described under sections on the individual countries.
Living conditions, including housing, are generally good in
The Saami homelands, and the Saami people, are in parts
the Faeroes. Although the economy has undergone recession
of northern Norway, Sweden, Finland, and northwestern
in recent years, and the cost of living remains high, most
Russia, though some Saami have moved to other parts of
people live in good and spacious houses, with all modern
these countries or abroad. The homelands encompass approx-
conveniences.
imately 400 000 km2. Several national Saami organizations
and the international Saami Council have worked to unite
Saami from the four countries. These organizations, together
5.6.6. Education
with the Saami Parliaments in Norway, Sweden, and Finland,
Faeroese education is based on compulsory schooling through
address issues of concern to Saami in regard to traditional
seven grades (up to age 14), with three additional optional
rights and use of the lands they inhabit.
grades, and a gymnasium, or senior school. There are also
In Russia, the Saami area is the Kola Peninsula, where
technical and commercial schools, a folk high school, a teach-
today there are 11 villages inhabited by Saami. Of these,
ers' training college, a nursing school, and a navigation and
Lovozero has the largest Saami population. In Finland, the
engineering school. The University of the Faeroe Islands of-
Saami area is in Lappi, the northernmost province. At the
fers university-level courses in many subjects, and confers ba-
beginning of the twentieth century, Saami lived in six muni-
chelor's degrees in some disciplines. More advanced education
cipalities, but now only live in four: Inari, Enontekiö, Uts-
is pursued outside the islands, most frequently in Denmark.
joki, and northern Sodankylä. In Sweden, the Saami area is
primarily in the counties of Norrbotten and Västerbotten,
plus the mountain fields of Jämtland and Härjedalen. In
5.6.7. Language
Norway, the Saami area is primarily in Finnmark, Troms,
Faeroese is a Nordic language, closely related to Icelandic
and northern Nordland, though it extends as far south as
and the dialects of western Norway. Following the Reforma-
Engerdal municipality in Hedmark county.
tion, Danish became the language of official business, and
Starting in the 1300s, the Saami territory was taxed by
Faeroese went out of use in its written form. The spoken
Russia, Sweden, Finland, and Norway. The unofficial admin-
language remained strong, and continued to carry the rich
istrative boundaries bore little relation to the traditional mi-
oral tradition of stories and ballads, which were usually
grations and herding patterns of the Saami, and many Saami
sung with the traditional Faeroese ring dance.
found themselves paying multiple taxes until the 18th cen-
In the mid-19th century, a new written version of Faer-
tury. In 1751, a treaty defined national borders in the region
oese was developed, and was reinstituted in education in
for the first time. This treaty included a supplement entitled
1937, and as an official language of the islands in 1948. In
the Saami Codicil (Lappecodisillen), which resolved this
1993, 104 books were published in Faeroese, of which 57
problem and acknowledged the civil rights of the Saami. It
were in the original language and 47 were translations. In
was designed to safeguard the economic activity of Saami in
addition, six Faeroese newspapers appear daily or weekly.
border areas, including their freedom of movement, and is
Faeroese Broadcast (established in 1957) uses Faeroese ex-
sometimes known as the Saami Magna Carta. Some provi-
clusively, while Faeroese Television (established in 1984)
sions, such as free movement of Saami across the Norwegian/
uses a mixture of languages.
Swedish border, were not actually implemented for over a
century after the treaty was signed.
5.6.8. Mortality and morbidity
5.7.2. Population
Public health is good on the Faeroe Islands. Life expectancy,
at 72.8 years for men and 79.6 years for women, is compa-
Calculating the total Saami population is difficult because
rable to that of other Nordic countries.
ethnicity is not always recorded as part of the census, and
because there are different definitions of what it is to be
Saami. Furthermore, some people with Saami ancestry
5.6.9. Health care
choose not to identify themselves as Saami for various rea-
The Faeroese health service is administered by the Faeroese
sons. In 1980, the Nordic Saami Conference adopted the
under supervision of the Danish Health Administration, and
following definition of Saami:
educational standards for health professionals are the same
Any individual who:
as in Denmark. In the Faeroes, there are 26 general practi-
tioners, 30 specialized physicians, 42 dentists, 3 pharmaceu-
· has Saami as his/her first language, or whose father or
tical divisions, 3 hospitals with a total of 300 beds, and ar-
mother, or one of whose grandparents has Saami as his/
rangements with the Danish National Hospital in Copenha-
her first language; or
gen for treating complicated cases.
· considers himself/herself a Saami and lives entirely ac-
cording to the rules of Saami society, and is recognized by
the representative Saami body as a Saami; or
5.7. Saami
· has a father or mother who satisfies the above criteria for
5.7.1. Geography
being a Saami.
The traditional homelands of the Saami are northern Fenno-
The Saami Parliaments in Norway and Sweden have a
scandia and the Kola Peninsula of northwestern Russia. While
similar definition to determine eligible candidates. You must
most of these areas are north of 66°N, the Saami are found as
declare that you consider yourself a Saami, and that you,
far south as 62°N. Recognizing the shared culture and history
one of your parents, or one of your grandparents uses or
among Saami and the contiguity of this area despite its divi-
used Saami as an everyday language.
sion into four countries, this section will describe the Saami
In Norway, estimates of the Saami population rely on
together as one group. Specific factors relating to each country,
using data on the proportion of Saami in rural areas from
162
AMAP Assessment Report
combining farming and fishing in local waters; inland soci-
eties, dependent upon farming or reindeer husbandry, with
some freshwater fishing; and urban societies, working in the
cash economies of the cities. Figure 5·12 shows the Saami
Finnmark
and total populations for selected areas of the Saami region,
Troms
and Figure 5·13 shows the approximate distribution of
Saami by type of society.
People have inhabited this region since the end of the last
ice age, approximately 10 000 years ago. The Saami may
have descended from these early peoples, as the region's cul-
Arc
Nordland
tic C
tures evolved and absorbed immigrating peoples. The earli-
ircle
est written references to Saami date from the first century, as
does the earliest archeological evidence of Saami-style dwel-
lings. In Roman times, and during the first millennium, the
Lapland
Saami are described as hunters, fishermen, trappers, and
later as reindeer herders.
Norrbotten
The arrival of immigrant populations from the south
from the 15th century onward forced the Saami to change
Number of inhabitants
their patterns of land and resource use. In part, these changes
260 000
were a reaction to reductions in game populations as a result
200 000
of multiple tax burdens, payable in furs, imposed on the
100 000
Saami. The arrival of Norse settlers on the Norwegian coast
Saami population
50 000
restricted the migrations of Saami, and led to the establish-
Non-indigenous population
ment of inland, fjord, and coastal societies. Finns moving
north displaced the sedentary Saami of northern Finland,
Figure 5·12. Total and Saami populations of Arctic areas of Fennoscandia
causing them to switch from hunting and trapping in the
(based on national census data).
forests to fishing and reindeer herding. In Russia, immigrant
populations also pushed the migratory Saami northward,
the 1900 census (which identified Saami). For areas where
beginning in the 17th century.
the ratios are assumed to be similar today and assuming a
Later changes, such as the demarcation of national bound-
population increase consistent with the total population rel-
aries and the closing of the borders of the former Soviet Un-
ative to the 1990 census, current estimates are calculated
ion, forced further alterations to migratory patterns. Econo-
using the method developed by Gjerde and Mosli (1985).
mic policies, especially during the Soviet period, led to addi-
Despite the difficulties of accurately making a census of
tional disruptions in the traditional way of life. Unlike other
the Saami, it is possible to estimate the Saami population in
Saami areas, the number of Saami in the Kola Peninsula area
the Arctic at approximately 50 000. In this area, the total
has not increased since the beginning of the 20th century,
population is approximately 2 million, so the Saami comprise
due in part to the effects of forced assimilation, as well as
about 2.5%. Today, Saami are in the majority only in Nesse-
the Second World War.
by, Tana, Porsanger, Kautokeino, and Karasjok in Norway,
and in Utsjoki, Finland.
5.7.3. Diet
The Saami can be classified into four societies, depending
upon place of residence and economic base. These are coastal
The Saami diet varies according to the areas and type of so-
societies, based upon sea fishing; fjord societies, based on
ciety in which they live. Coastal Saami naturally have diets
high in fish, especially cod, and other marine products. Fjord
Finmark
Saami eat some fish, which are more likely to come from
8 000
local stocks, but they also eat more farm products. Inland
Troms
6 000
8 000
Saami consume large quantities of reindeer meat, as well as
4 000
6 000
moose and fish. These patterns vary seasonally, with the
2 000
4 000
availability of the resources. For example, salmon are com-
0
2 000
monly eaten in summer, but are not available in spring.
Murmansk
0
Lapland
Oblast
While little detailed information is available about quan-
Arct
Nordland
4 000
2 000
ic Circ
tities of food consumed, Figure 5·14 shows frequencies of
le
(Arctic area)
2 000
0
2 000
consumption of different food types for the four societies de-
0
0
scribed. Most meat consumed is locally-produced reindeer.
Norrbotten
4 000
Surveys in 1987 among the Saami population of Väster-
2 000
botten, Sweden, showed that the traditional diet of reindeer-
0
herding Saami is high in protein, fat, niacin, B-12, iron, zinc,
selenium, cholesterol, and sodium, and low in carbohydrates,
vitamin C, calcium, disaccharides, and fiber. A study of nu-
Society type
trient intakes in 1990, comparing Västerbotten Saami with
Coastal
Swedes in the same area, found that the Saami intake of car-
bohydrates had risen since 1987 and was closer to that of
Fjord
the general Swedish population, while Saami intake of zinc,
Inland
phosphorus, and vitamin B-12 remained higher. Saami wo-
Urban
men had lower total energy intake than men, and their in-
take of vitamin B-6, iron, magnesium, zinc, and selenium
Figure 5·13. Calculated Saami population in the Arctic areas of the Saami
region, by society type and region.
was below the recommended level (Håglin 1988, 1990).
Chapter 5 · Peoples of the Arctic
163
%
meat 3 times/week
%
potatoes 3 times/week
creases the region's population to 468 691 as of January 1,
100
100
1995. Between 1960 and 1980, the population decreased
90
90
and the mean age increased, due to extensive emigration,
80
80
70
70
mostly to cities in southern Norway. In the past five years,
60
60
however, the population has stabilized, and the mean age is
50
50
decreasing. Young people are becoming more likely to stay
40
40
in the area in which they were raised, and also to return to
30
30
20
20
northern Norway after education in the south.
10
10
The non-indigenous population has a very urbanized
0
0
lifestyle and dietary pattern, with modern equipment in fish-
Coastal
Fjord
Inland
Urban
Coastal
Fjord
Inland
Urban
ing and agriculture (Aase 1994). Assessing environmental
exposures for indigenous inhabitants of this region will in-
%
vegetables 9 times/month)
%
fish 3 times/week)
clude the risk levels faced by non-indigenous residents.
100
100
The Saami of Arctic Norway have been described earlier,
90
90
80
80
but it is important to note recent immigrants to this area
70
70
from other countries. For example, Tamils from Sri Lanka
60
60
have moved to many small towns in Finnmark. Finnmark
50
50
also has many groups of Finnish-speakers.
40
40
30
30
20
20
10
10
5.8.3. Diet
0
0
Coastal
Fjord
Inland
Urban
Coastal
Fjord
Inland
Urban
The diet of the general population in northern Norway is sim-
ilar to that in the rest of the country (Westlund and Søgaard
Figure 5·14. Frequency of consumption of food categories by Saami in Nor-
1993). The main differences include higher consumption of
way, percent of respondents, by society type (Westlund and Søgaard 1993).
potatoes and fish and lower consumption of fruits and veg-
etables. Trends to a healthier diet are leading to reduced
5.7.4. Employment
rates of coronary heart disease for both men and women.
The traditional occupations of Saami are fishing, farming,
and reindeer herding. In Norway and Sweden, only Saami
5.8.4. Employment
are allowed to engage in reindeer herding. Compared with
the general population, Saami are more likely to work in
Industries in northern Norway include fishing and mining,
agriculture and less likely to work in industry and construc-
which form the economic base of the region (Almanakk for
tion, but have a similar proportion working in the service
Norge 1996). Norway is one of the top ten fishing nations in
sector of the economy.
the world, with a catch in 1989 of 1.76 million tonnes. The
Most hunting in the Saami areas today is recreational,
oil industry, which supports a significant portion of the na-
and is usually done by urban residents visiting the area.
tional economy, is based farther south. Unemployment in
While bringing some economic benefits, sport hunting for
Norway has been stable at about 10% for the past five years.
ptarmigan conflicts with traditional Saami hunting and
Among Saami in Norway, 13.2% are engaged in agricul-
other occupations.
ture, 20.5% in industries including construction, and 66.2%
in trade, transport, and services (Aase 1994). The most no-
table difference between Finnmark and Troms is the greater
5.7.5. Language
percentage of Saami engaged in reindeer herding in Finnmark
The Saami languages are Finno-Ugric, of the Uralic family.
(5.36% vs. 0.48%), and the greater percentage in Troms en-
They are closely related to Finnish and Estonian, and to in-
gaged in farming (5.80% vs. 1.52%). Overall, the Saami are
digenous languages such as Komi in Russia. There are ten
more likely to be engaged in agricultural occupations than
distinct languages, of which six are still spoken: Northern
are members of the general population.
Saami, Southern Saami, Lule-Saami, Inari-Saami, Skolt-Saami,
In Arctic Norway, average income levels are lower than
and Kildin-Saami. Each language has its own dialects. In Nor-
for the country as a whole, but unemployment has been at
way, there are approximately 20 000 speakers of Saami; in
the national average over the last three years.
Sweden, 10 000; in Finland, 3000; and in Russia, 1000. The
boundaries of the Saami languages do not follow national
5.8.5. Housing
borders, but are more related to resource use and natural
geographic features.
Housing in northern Norway is generally of good standard,
with adequate living space and modern conveniences (Aase
et al. 1996).
5.8. Norway
5.8.1. Geography
5.8.6. Education
Arctic Norway includes the counties of Finnmark and Troms,
Education in Norway is obligatory and free of charge from
as well as the area of Nordland north of the Arctic Circle,
age 6 to 15. The college schools, for ages 16 to 19, are also
an area of 95 489 km2. Svalbard is not included in this section.
free. At university, students must pay for their expenses, al-
though tuition is free. For post-graduate education, however,
students must provide their own financing.
5.8.2. Population
Education levels in northern Norway have increased dra-
The 1990 population of Arctic Norway was 379 461 (Alma-
matically in recent years, and may prove one of the most
nakk for Norge 1996). For use of statistics given at the coun-
effective means of achieving improvements in health in the
ty level, this section will include all of Nordland, which in-
region.
164
AMAP Assessment Report
and a similar trend can be seen for females. Smoking, on the
5.8.7. Language
other hand, remains more common than in other parts of
In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the Norwegian
the country. For males, the prevalence of smoking is decreas-
government attempted to assimilate the Saami by eliminat-
ing in urban areas, but stable or increasing elsewhere. For
ing the use of the Saami language. In 1902, it was forbidden
females, it is increasing everywhere, especially in fishing
to sell land to persons who could not speak Norwegian, and
communities. Pregnant women, however, are smoking less
speaking Saami was not allowed in schools. Since the Second
frequently (Eriksson et al. 1996). Smoking appears closely
World War, these attitudes have been gradually changing,
correlated with coffee drinking, which is more common in
and Saami culture and identity have enjoyed a renaissance
Finnmark than anywhere else in Norway.
throughout the Saami area.
Accidental deaths, however, remain relatively high. Deaths
The Saami language has been used in education in Nor-
from snow machine accidents, often related to alcohol con-
way since the mid-1960s. The Basic Education Act in 1974
sumption, are an obvious area where preventive measures
established the right to study the Saami language, and since
are needed (Brattebø 1994).
1974, it has been possible to study Saami from primary
An epidemiological study of atopic diseases, especially
school through graduate studies. In 1985, it became possible
atopic dermatitis, in relation to environmental factors among
to study all subjects in Saami during the first nine years of
school children in Sør-Varanger has shown a higher frequen-
education. The Saami Education Council, established in 1975,
cy of atopic disease than any other area studied in Norway
advises the Ministry of Education, and helped develop the
or elsewhere (Dotterud et al. 1994, Dotterud 1995). The fre-
new curriculum guidelines that have been used since 1987.
quency of atopic dermatitis has doubled in one generation in
There are also two upper secondary schools for Saami and
this community. Two thirds of children showed symptoms of
the Saami College, providing teacher training and Saami
atopic disease by age 2, more frequently in girls than boys.
language education through the university level. The Saami
Asthma onset was typically early, as is usual. Contact allergy
College is hoping to add fields such as nature and resource
had high prevalence, and was twice as common in girls as in
management to the courses offered.
boys. Metal allergies accounted for three-fourths of all con-
The Saami language has had official status since 1992,
tact allergies in schoolchildren, and nickel allergy was re-
with special application in the six districts with significant
sponsible for two thirds of all patch test reactions. Nickel
Saami populations. More Saami-speakers are becoming
allergies were also significantly higher among girls with
medical doctors, in part because the University of Tromsø
pierced ears than among girls without pierced ears.
gives extra credits to students who can speak Saami (J.Ø.
Odland pers. comm.).
5.8.9. Health care
Health care in Norway is based on primary care at the com-
5.8.8. Mortality and morbidity
munity level, financed by the local communities, under the
For all of Norway, the birth rate in 1994 was 13.3 per 1000,
supervision of the National Health Control System. In north-
and the death rate was 10.4 per 1000 (Aase et al. 1996). The
ern Norway, the biggest difficulty is attracting and keeping
fertility rate was 1.8 children per woman of childbearing age.
capable health professionals. Since few are from the north
Infant mortality was 6.3 per 1000 live births. Life expect-
originally, most do not stay in the region longer than a few
ancy in 1994 was 74.0 for males, and 80.9 for females. Cur-
years (J.Ø. Odland pers. comm.). Recent initiatives have be-
rent population increases are due in part to increasing life
gun to open more places at medical schools to try to relieve
expectancy, which is leading to an older population and the
this shortage, but it will take several years before improve-
attendant medical and social changes that this will create.
ments are seen at the local level.
Arctic Norway, however, has long been behind the rest of
While health facilities exist in northern Norway, the
the country in these areas. The first mortality studies in Nor-
sparse population and small, isolated communities cannot
way, in the early 19th century, showed that the northern-
support full-service hospitals in any but the largest popula-
most counties had the highest mortality rates. This has not
tion centers.
changed. The most common causes of death are coronary
heart disease, accidents, and cancers of the stomach, lungs,
and esophagus. The highest mortality rates within the region
5.9. Sweden
are in the fishing communities along the coast. Because of
5.9.1. Geography
this geographical pattern, and the fact that the coastal popu-
lation is mostly Norwegian while most Saami live farther in-
For this section, Arctic Sweden consists of the county of
land, Finnmark has the unusual situation that the indige-
Norrbotten, the northernmost in Sweden, which covers
nous residents show better overall health characteristics than
98 911 km2.
the general population. Nonetheless, better health is most
strongly correlated with a higher education level (Aase 1994).
5.9.2. Population
In recent years, there has been no relative improvement of
the mortality rates of northern counties in relation to the
The population of Norrbotten has increased from 50 000 in
rest of the country. In 1985, life expectancy in Finnmark
the mid-nineteenth century to 263 735 in 1990. Of these,
was five years shorter for males and three years shorter for
approximately 64 000 live north of the Arctic Circle. Much
females when compared with the best southern county,
of this increase was due to internal migrations from the late
Sogn og Fjordane. The trends for younger people, however,
19th century through the 1940s, as the county's forests, iron
show a more optimistic pattern. Infant mortality in the Arc-
deposits, and water power were developed. Recently, the
tic, until recently much higher than for the country as a
population has remained stable; in 1994, the net increase
whole, is now at the national level.
was 555 persons. Of the population, 81.5% lives in towns,
Lifestyle factors may contribute in part to these improve-
5.5% in rural villages, and 13% in other rural areas.
ments. As noted above, dietary changes have led to reduced
Norrbotten has a greater proportion of persons under the
rates of coronary heart disease in males born after 1930,
age of 25 than Sweden as a whole, although the age structure
Chapter 5 · Peoples of the Arctic
165
of the Swedish population has shifted dramatically in the past
tive mortality is higher for the four northern counties of
25 years. In 1970, 40% of males and 39% of females in Norr-
Sweden than for southern Sweden. Mortality due to acci-
botten were under 25, compared with 36.5% and 35% for all
dents, alcohol-related diseases, circulatory organ diseases in-
of Sweden. In 1993, 14.9% of Norrbotten residents were under
cluding ischemic heart disease, and stomach cancer is higher
25, compared with 14.5% for all of Sweden. Correspondingly,
in the north than the south, but mortality from most other
the proportion of persons older than 64 has increased from 11%
cancers and suicide is lower (Samverkansnämnden Norra
to 16% (National Central Bureau of Statistics 1975, 1995).
Sjukvårdsregionen 1992). Mortality for men is higher than
The general population of Norrbotten is similar to the
for women, especially from ischemic heart disease and alco-
population of the country as a whole, although the Saami
hol-related disease. Lung cancer mortality is increasing, es-
and immigrants from Finland provide cultural diversity. In
pecially among women. Perinatal mortality is higher in Nor-
Norrbotten, only 0.5% of the people are immigrants from
rbotten (0.86%) than in Sweden overall (0.66%) (Larsson et
outside Fennoscandia.
al. 1992).
Disease patterns in northern Sweden are similar to the
rest of the country, with some exceptions. Cancer incidence
5.9.3. Diet
is generally lower, while circulatory diseases are more com-
National dietary surveys conducted recently have shown
mon. This has been related to higher dietary intake of fat,
that the population of northern Sweden consumes less veg-
and genetic factors may also play a role. Disturbances and
etables and wine, but more fat, beer, and spirits than those
diseases in the musculo-skeletal system are more common in
living in central and southern Sweden (Becker and Enghardt
northern Sweden. The number of daily smokers in northern
1994, Becker 1995). In Norrbotten, the general population
Sweden is distinctly lower than in the country as a whole.
consumes more reindeer than the Swedish average. Food
preparation habits, however, are similar in Norrbotten to
5.9.8. Health care
other parts of Sweden.
Health care is provided by the Swedish welfare system. Most
health care units and hospitals are public, and the yearly max-
5.9.4. Employment
imum fee for treatment is SEK 2200.
Compared with Sweden as a whole, Norrbotten has a higher
percentage of workers in mining, electricity, water services,
forestry, and public services, and a lower percentage in man-
5.10. Finland
ufacturing (National Central Bureau of Statistics 1995). Farm-
5.10.1. Geography
ing has declined significantly as an occupation in Norrbotten
since the 1930s (Granström 1942, SOU 1970). Today, dairy
The northernmost province of Finland, Lapland, is close to
production is the main agricultural activity of the county.
99 000 km2, or one third of the country. Lapland's borders
There were only 523 registered reindeer owners in Norrbot-
with neighboring countries are long: 715 km with Norway,
ten in 1990, and less than half of these were engaged in rein-
550 km with Sweden, and 370 km with Russia.
deer breeding. The average number of reindeer in the region
Although Lapland's topography is smooth, except in fell
for the period 1980-89 was 181 200. Today, only 15% of Saa-
areas, its northerly location makes for a fragile environment.
mi in Sweden are engaged in reindeer herding; the rest are en-
The region is a subarctic transition zone between Arctic and
gaged in occupations similar to those of the general population.
boreal zones. Coniferous forests cover half of Lapland, marsh
In Norrbotten, 75% of the population is economically ac-
lands cover 34%, and the treeless or birch highlands, mostly
tive, compared with 77.7% of Sweden as a whole. Of those
situated in the northern half of Lapland, comprise 16% of the
who are economically active in Norrbotten, 48% are women.
area. One third of Lapland, 34 000 km2, is protected by di-
The average salary is SEK 160 000 per year.
verse programs such as natural parks and wilderness areas.
5.9.5. Housing
5.10.2. Population
Housing in Norrbotten is similar to that in the rest of Swe-
Lapland is sparsely populated, with slightly more than
den. Nearly all houses and apartments have running water
200 000 inhabitants, half of whom live in the largest cities
and sewer systems, as well as central heating.
in the south. The population is slightly younger than the av-
erage in Finland. In 1995, 24.6% of Laplanders were young-
er than 17, compared with 22.8% of the Finnish population
5.9.6. Education
as a whole.
The Swedish education system is public, and compulsory for
There are just under 7000 Finnish Saami. Of these, about
nine years. More than 95% of students continue for another
4000 live in northern Lapland, 500 live abroad, and the rest
three years of upper secondary school, where they can choose
live in other parts of the country. The so-called Saami areas
between theoretical and practical programs.
in Finland are the three northernmost municipalities in Lap-
For their education today, Saami children have a choice
land, Inari, Utsjoki, and Enontekiö, plus the village of Vuo-
between attending regular municipal schools, where some
sto in Sodankylä municipality.
lessons are available in Saami, or government Saami schools,
The standard of living in Lapland equals that of the rest
which aim to provide the same education while taking into ac-
of Finland. Government assistance and development mea-
count the Saami students' linguistic and cultural backgrounds.
sures play an important role in the communal economy. Es-
sential municipal infrastructure (i.e., water supply, waste
treatment) and services (i.e., education, health care, organ-
5.9.7. Mortality and morbidity
ized waste collection) reach all population groups well. The
Mortality in Norrbotten is described in greater detail in Chap-
road system is well developed with an 8000 km network of
ter 12 on Human Health. Life expectancy for the county is
public roads and, in addition, a wealth of private and for-
half a year lower than for Sweden as a whole, and the rela-
estry roads.
166
AMAP Assessment Report
Natural population growth has decreased in recent years.
are Saami, to establish reindeer farms. Subsequent acts pro-
In 1995, the natural increase was 492 persons, while the de-
mise further improvements for primary producers in north-
crease, mostly by out-migration, was 1439 persons. Immi-
ern Finland. Recently, conflicts have arisen between Saami
gration from other areas or countries to Lapland is of minor
and Finnish reindeer herders, relating to legal protection of
importance.
traditional activities. The number of reindeer fluctuates be-
tween about 200 000 in winter and 350 000 in summer be-
fore slaughtering. Because reindeer use natural lichen areas
5.10.3. Diet
as winter feeding grounds, and fell tops in summer as refuge
The origin of food consumed in Lapland is changing, as
against insects and parasites, impacts on the vegetation of
more is imported from outside the region. Reindeer meat
both areas are seen in the form of changes in species compo-
and fish are the main locally produced and consumed foods.
sition and, in certain areas, erosion. The problem of over-
A 1986 study (Hälinen and Sikkilä 1993) found that the
grazing is evident, and has been under investigation. The
northernmost reindeer herders ate 338 g of meat a day, of
management of reindeer husbandry is developing toward a
which 235 g was reindeer meat. People in the south ate 188
more controlled and modest strategy; reindeer herds in many
g of meat per day, of which only 30 g was from reindeer.
areas have been decreased and the awareness of environmen-
The northernmost reindeer herders also consumed less than
tal effects is changing the practice of reindeer husbandry.
half the amount of dairy products consumed by the south-
Among Saami in Lapland, 14.9% are engaged in agricul-
erners (456 g/d vs. 954 g/d). Other dietary patterns were
ture (including reindeer herding), 12.6% in industries includ-
broadly similar.
ing construction, and 72.4% in trade, transport, and services.
From reindeer, meat, fat, bone marrow, heart, and some-
Unemployment remains a serious problem in Finland,
times liver are eaten. Reindeer owners consume more rein-
with a rate in recent years of about 25%. The rate is higher
deer than others, who eat more imported meats. Reindeer
in Lapland, and the prevailing trends show a decreasing num-
meat is usually cooked, often by frying or in soups. Drying
ber of young persons among job applicants, and increasing
and smoking are common ways to preserve the meat.
long-term unemployment.
River trout, brown trout, salmon, and whitefish are all
eaten, including the roe. Fish are cooked by frying, roasting,
5.10.5. Housing
and are also smoked. Ocean fish are now imported to the
region, including herring from the Gulf of Bothnia and a
Measured as rooms per person, housing standards are lower
variety of Arctic Ocean fishes.
in Lapland than in elsewhere in Finland. Since 1970, the liv-
Berries are also used in Lapland. Cloudberries are mostly
ing conditions of the Saami population have improved, large-
eaten raw. Lingonberries and blueberries are eaten raw,
ly as a consequence of the legislative actions noted above.
boiled, or baked. Crowberries are often turned into juice,
Today, the worst housing conditions are found among un-
which is very rich in vitamin C. Other berries, such as bog
employed non-indigenous people.
bilberries, are consumed, often with blueberries.
In the effort to build energy-efficient homes, houses built
since 1980 are often too airtight, and in winter, too dry. This
has contributed to increased health problems of the mucous
5.10.4. Employment
membranes such as respiratory and middle ear infections.
Service and tourism occupations predominate, and are the
most rapidly growing industries in Lapland. Tourism em-
5.10.6. Education
ploys 4000 people. Sightseeing tours and winter sports expe-
riences are important sources of income for both tourist cen-
Universal education is guaranteed in Finland, and begins at
ters and small family-run enterprises.
age seven. In Lapland, 54% of the population has completed
In rural areas, the traditional way of life consists of a mix-
the basic education (up to 16 years old), 45% has graduated
ture of livelihoods, such as reindeer and animal husbandry,
from high school, and 8.8% is university educated. There is
minor scale agriculture, forestry, fishing, hunting, and service.
one university in Lapland, the University of Lapland in Ro-
In northern Lapland, this primary production comprises
vaniemi.
14.5% of the economy. For the northeastern parts of the
province, which has been the focus in Finland of AMAP's
5.10.7. Language
human health monitoring program, this figure is 16.1%.
Large-scale industries are concentrated in the Kemi-Tor-
Finnish is the mother tongue for the majority of Lapland's
nio area on the coast of the Bothnian Bay for forest-prod-
population. In three northernmost municipalities which com-
ucts and metals, and in the southeastern part of Lapland for
prise the Saami area, Saami languages have official status,
forest products. About 43% of Lapland's industrial output
though most Saami in Lapland speak Finnish as well as Saami.
is exported.
While Swedish is also an official language of Finland and
Although forests grow slowly in Lapland, they produce
is compulsory in all Finnish schools, it is spoken more gener-
10% of the country's annual growth and Lapland's timber
ally in the southern regions and especially the western coast
inventory is 16% of the country's total. Forestry is a signifi-
of Finland. The most popular foreign languages at school
cant contributor to Lapland's economy, providing 50% of
are English, German, French, and Russian.
the province's industrial production and 70% of its export
earnings (Varmola 1995). Sustainability is the goal of north-
5.10.8. Mortality and morbidity
ern forestry today, and research is directed toward develop-
ing and improving such management strategies.
Morbidity in Lapland today does not differ significantly
Large areas of common land are used for reindeer herd-
from that in the southern parts of Finland, although heart
ing. Improvements in regulations governing reindeer herding
and circulation diseases are more common in northern and
have allowed living conditions for Saami to approach those
eastern Finland. The incidence of cardiovascular disease
of the general population. Under the Reindeer Farm Act of
among the Saami earlier was very low, but as a consequence
1969, lands have been granted to 280 families, 250 of which
of changed living habits, such differences have decreased.
Chapter 5 · Peoples of the Arctic
167
Chukotka
Autonomous
Taimyr
Okrug
(Dolgan -Nenets)
Autonomous
Okrug
Circle
Arctic
Murmansk
Oblast
Sakha Republic
(Arctic area)
Number of inhabitants
Nenets
Autonomous
1 200 000
Okrug
1 000 000
500 000
Yamalo-Nenets
100 000
Autonomous
50 000
Okrug
Indigenous population
Non-indigenous population
Figure 5·15. Total and indigenous minority populations in the Arctic area of the Russian Federation, by region, according to the 1989 Census (Republi-
can Information and Publication Center 1992a, 1992b; State Committee of the Russian Federation for Statistics 1992).
In general, the incidence of cancers is lower in Lapland than
malo-Nenets Autonomous Okrug, the Taimyr (Dolgan-
in other parts of Finland. Incidences of colon and rectal can-
Nenets) Autonomous Okrug, the five Arctic districts of the
cers of both genders and melanoma, breast, cervix, and uter-
Sakha Republic (Yakutia), and the Chukotka Autonomous
ine cancers of women are lower. Incidences of pulmonary and
Okrug. The Russian Arctic Sector, including offshore terri-
stomach cancers of men and thyreoidea of women are higher.
tory in the Arctic Ocean, is approximately 9 million km2
Muscle, joint, respiratory, and middle ear diseases are
(Kolesnik 1971). The combined land area of these regions is
typical in the cold, northern climate. Diabetes was formerly
approximately 3.1 million km2.
very rare in Lapland, but today its prevalence is the same as
the national average. Among Saami, congenital hip luxation
5.11.2. Population
has been common. Lactose malabsorption remains common,
reaching 60% among those not used to fresh milk. Accidents
This vast area encompasses varied geography, history, eco-
are a big problem in the north. Snowmobiles cause loss of
nomic activity, and, officially, eleven of Russia's thirty north-
hearing, vibration disease, and worst of all, severe accidents.
ern indigenous minorities, as well as more numerous indige-
Mortality rates in Lapland were 878 per 100 000 in 1989,
nous peoples such as the Komi and the Yakut (see Krupnik
and 870 per 100 000 in 1991. From 1987 to 1991, cardiovas-
1994 and Vakhtin 1992). The eleven indigenous minorities
cular diseases were the leading cause of death (418 per 100 000
considered to be Arctic are the Saami, Enets, Nenets, Khan-
per year, or 48%), followed by cancer (163 per 100 000, or
ty, Nganasan, Dolgan, Even, Evenk, Chukchi, Eskimo (Yu-
19%), and injuries and accidents (103 per 100 000, or 12%).
pik), and Yukagir. In addition, five northern indigenous mi-
For Finland as a whole, the corresponding figures are 50%,
norities live close to or within the Arctic region. These are
20%, and 9%. For males, the main cause of accidents was
the Selkup, Chuvan, Mansi, Ket, and Koryak (Republican
poisoning, usually from alcohol. The rate of accidental death
Information and Publication Center 1992a). Note that more
among males was 34 times higher than among females.
recent figures (e.g., State Committee of the Russian Feder-
Between 1991 and 1995, mortality in Lapland was 8%
ation for Northern Affairs 1996a) show some changes in the
higher than for Finland as a whole. Because the total popu-
numbers of indigenous minorities, but these figures are not
lation is relatively small, there are large variations between
as complete as those from the 1989 Census, which is used
years, especially at the municipality level.
throughout this chapter.
While groups such as the Komi, Yakut, and the Russian
`Old Settlers' have lifestyles similar to the indigenous minor-
5.11. Russia
ities, and hence share similar environmental risks, this sec-
tion gives prominence to the indigenous minorities for two
5.11.1. Geography
reasons. First, they are few in number and very susceptible
The Arctic area of the Russian Federation stretches from the
to cultural erosion, especially through changes to their tradi-
Norwegian border at about 27°E longitude, eastward to Os-
tional ways of life. Second, they live only in or near the Arc-
trov Ratmanova at about 169°W, nearly halfway around the
tic zone, and are thus particularly sensitive to changes in the
world. This section describes the area defined by the Russian
Arctic environment (Aipin 1994).
Federation's delineation of the Arctic zone, including the
Immigrant populations in the Russian Arctic greatly out-
Murmansk Oblast, the Nenets Autonomous Okrug, the Ya-
number the indigenous inhabitants (Figure 5·15 and Table
168
AMAP Assessment Report
Table 5·11. Populations by region and ethnicity (indigenous minorities) in the Arctic area of the Russian Federation, according to the 1989 Census
(Republican Information Publication Center 1992a, 1992b; State Committee of the Russian Federation for Statistics 1992).
Taimyr
Sakha
Murmansk
Yamalo-
(Dolgan-
Republic,
Chukotka
Russian
People / Region
Oblast
Nenets A.O.
Nenets A.O.
Nenets) A.O.
Arctic area
A.O.
Arctic
Russia
Saami
1615
0
0
2
0
0
1617
1835
Enets
4
0
2
103
0
0
109
198
Nenets
176
6423
20917
2446
0
10
29972
34190
Khanty
10
5
7247
3
0
4
7269
22283
Nganasan
5
0
3
849
0
0
857
1262
Dolgan
18
0
14
4939
0
4
4975
5363
Even
10
1
46
34
1793
1336
3220
17055
Evenk
20
27
78
311
1285
54
1775
29901
Chukchi
2
0
11
1
428
11914
12356
15107
Yupik
3
6
7
0
0
1452
1468
1704
Yukagir
3
0
3
0
476
160
642
1112
Selkup
1
1
1530
8
0
0
1540
3564
Chuvan
9
0
0
4
0
944
957
1384
Koryak
5
1
31
16
0
95
148
8942
Ket
0
3
6
11
0
0
20
1084
Mansi
18
1
216
1
0
3
239
8279
Total indigenous
minorities population
1899
6468
30111
8728
3982
15976
67164
Total population
1164586
53912
494844
55803
66632
163934
1999711
% indigenous
0.16%
12.00%
6.08%
15.64%
5.98%
9.75%
3.36%
Urban
1070970
34336
385614
36717
48456
118986
1695079
Rural
93616
19576
109230
19086
18176
44948
304632
5·11). These immigrants are ethnic Russians, Byelorussi-
According to the 1989 Census (from which all population
ans, Ukrainians, and others, who have moved to the Rus-
figures in this section are taken), the total population of the
sian Arctic over the course of several centuries. Most immi-
Russian Arctic is approximately 2 million. Neighboring re-
grants have arrived within the past century, live in cities
gions with conditions similar to the Arctic have another 1.5
and large towns, and are engaged in industrial enterprises
to 2 million inhabitants. The population as a whole is older
or related support services. In western areas of the Russian
than is typical for Arctic regions of other circumpolar coun-
Arctic, the ethnic Russians known as Pomors have lived in
tries (Figure 5·16). In addition, there are roughly 260 000 in-
the area for five centuries, living a traditional lifestyle simi-
habitants of the Norilsk mining complex which, though lo-
lar to that of indigenous peoples. In Siberia and the Far
cated north of the Arctic Circle and surrounded by the
East, as well, there are some immigrant families that have
Taimyr (Dolgan-Nenets) Autonomous Okrug, is considered
adopted a lifestyle closer to the indigenous way of life than
part of the Krasnoyarsk Krai for statistical purposes. Of the
the industrial one.
residents of the Arctic, approximately 67 000 are indigenous
Chukotka
% Autonomous Okrug
Murmansk
%
80
A
Oblast
rct
80
icC
60
ircle
60
Taimyr
40
(Dolgan Nenets)
40
% Autonomous Okrug
20
80
20
0
60
Sakha Republic
0
%
(Arctic area)
Nenets
40
80
% Autonomous Okrug
80
20
60
60
0
40
40
Yamalo-Nenets
20
% Autonomous Okrug
80
20
0
60
0
40
20
0
Younger than working age
Working age
Older than working age
Figure 5·16. Age structure of the Arctic population of the Russian Federation, % of the total population, by region, 1993 (State Committee of the Rus-
sian Federation for Statistics 1994b).
Chapter 5 · Peoples of the Arctic
169
the economy. This has been most severe among the Eskimo
Chukotka
Autonomous
(Yupik), whose employment rates have dropped 30.9%,
Okrug
among the Chukchi, at 28.6%, and among the Saami, at
Taimyr
(Dolgan -Nenets)
22.1%. The main causes of this decrease in employment are
Autonomous
Circle
declines in reindeer stocks due to reorganizations in collec-
Okrug
Murmansk
Arctic
tive and state farms, depletion of fish stocks, closure of for-
Oblast
est plots, and a sharp reduction in investments in construc-
Nenets
tion, trade, and other services.
Autonomous
Sakha Republic
Okrug
(Arctic area)
The result today is an unemployment rate among indige-
nous minorities of 25 to 30%, which is even higher among
young persons and women. Of the potential work force,
Yamalo-Nenets
Autonomous
15% do not seek work. An additional problem for indige-
Okrug
nous peoples is the relative lack of mobility. Among non-in-
digenous workers, 20% will look outside their region for
work if they lose their jobs. For indigenous minorities, this
2 000 000
index is as low as 2%, and may be lower since most may
1 000 000
return if they fail to find employment in other areas.
500 000
Among those working, indigenous persons account for
70% of agricultural workers in Arctic regions. Of indige-
100 000
Figure 5·17. Populations by place of resi-
nous workers, over half work in areas related to traditional
dence in Arctic Russia, according to the 1989
activities, such as reindeer herding, fur trapping and farm-
Census (Republican Information and Publica-
Rural population
ing, hunting, fishing, and making handicrafts. Among the
tion Center 1992a, 1992b; State Committee of
Urban population
the Russian Federation for Statistics. 1992).
Even, employment in agriculture was 77.8% of workers,
and among the Chukchi, 70.2%.
minorities. Of these, 75% live in rural areas. In contrast, over
In industrial occupations, the opportunities for indige-
80% of the non-indigenous population lives in urban areas
nous workers appear limited. Few workers in mining and oil
(Figure 5·17) (State Committee of the Russian Federation
and gas industries are indigenous, and about one-tenth of
for Statistics 1989, 1992, Republican Information and Pub-
indigenous workers are employed in construction. Typically,
lication Center 1992a, 1992b, Sovietskaya Entsiklopedia 1988).
they are in less skilled positions, due to low educational and
This section starts with a general description of condi-
professional status (State Committee of the Russian Federa-
tions in the Russian Arctic, and then provides specific infor-
tion for Publishing 1995).
mation about each region, starting with the Murmansk Oblast
Traditional fields, on the other hand, are narrowing in
in the west and ending with the Chukotka Autonomous Okrug
some respects, while showing opportunities for growth in
in the east.
others. There is also a loss of interest, particularly on the
The recent economic changes in Russia are felt acutely in
part of younger people, in pursuing traditional occupations.
the Arctic, where supply lines and employment opportuni-
These areas face additional difficulties in the transition to a
ties have been disrupted. Examining current conditions must
market economy, where low educational status hinders the
also take into account recent trends in living conditions. At
acquisition of the new skills that are needed. As discussed
the same time it is important to recognize that the changes
below, the ecological disruption to traditional areas has also
are rapid enough that many recent statistics may already be
reduced the opportunities available for pursuing traditional
out of date.
livelihoods. Nonetheless, these occupations still hold the
greatest opportunity for indigenous peoples in the Arctic.
Traditional economies can be classified in four types: marine
5.11.3. Diet
mammal hunters (Eskimo, Chukchi, Koryak), reindeer herders
Dietary information since 1990 (Figure 5·18) suggests a gen-
of the tundra and forest tundra (Nenets, Enets, Nganasan, Dol-
eral decrease in food consumption, especially of imported
gan, Chukchi, Koryak, Even, Evenk, Khanty), river fishermen
foods, including different kinds of meat (Russian Academy
(Khanty, Selkup, Koryak), and hunters and herders of the tai-
of Sciences 1994a, State Committee of the Russian Federa-
ga (Evenk, Even, Dolgan, Nenets, Selkup, Yukagir, Khanty).
tion for Statistics 1994c, 1995). Official statistics, however,
Divisions among these economies are typically complex,
may conceal wide variations and recent economic impacts
though in most regions, one or two branches predominate.
(Mikhail Balonov pers. comm.). Data presented in chapter 8
Working in nomadic occupations, such as reindeer herd-
of this report show different patterns. Among indigenous peo-
ing, while trying to maintain a family that is settled in a vil-
ples, there is a trend to return to older lifestyles and a more
lage produces great strain. In areas where herding is done on
traditional diet (V. Klopov pers. comm., Corbett and Swibold
a shift basis, and the migration routes do not exceed 400 km,
1996). Overall, the diet is poor in fruits and vegetables.
herders can maintain a satisfactory lifestyle. When the migra-
tion routes are longer, additional efforts are required to allow
families to move with the herders, and to provide suitable
5.11.4. Employment
dwellings along the migratory route. These factors led to a
Prior to 1992, employment among indigenous peoples
small increase in the number of migratory workers in 1992.
showed a continuous upward trend. From 1981 to 1991,
Fur farming is another occupation close to the traditional
the number of workers, officials, and farmers among indi-
way of life that provides employment for indigenous residents
genous peoples increased on average 22.6% in all sectors
of rural areas. In the Provideniya district of the Chukotka
of the economy. Employment rates among women increased
Autonomous Okrug, over 2000 indigenous persons are em-
faster still. Among some groups, including the Nenets, Enets,
ployed in this field. Food for the foxes is produced locally,
and Yukagir, employment almost doubled.
by brigades of marine mammal hunters. With the market
The transition to a market economy, however, has led to
economy, these farms are allowed to negotiate their prices,
a reduction of indigenous persons employed in all sectors of
and seek profitable means of production and marketing.
170
AMAP Assessment Report
5£16d01
Murmansk Oblast
Nenets Autonomous Okrug
Indigenous
g/person/day
General
Indigenous
g/person/day
General
population
population
population
population
900 800 700 600 500 400 300 200 100 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900
900 800 700 600 500 400 300 200 100 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900
Milks and
Milks and cheese
cheese
Cereals and flour
Cereals and flour
Potatoes
Potatoes
Fruits and vegetables
Fruits and vegetables
Imported and other domestic meat
Imported and other domestic meat
Reindeer and other wild meat
Reindeer and other wild meat
Wild bird meat
Wild bird meat
Marine mammals
Marine mammals
Ocean fish
Ocean fish
Freshwater fish
Freshwater fish
Local plants
Local plants
Eggs (number per day) : 1.45
Eggs (number per day) : 1.49
Eggs (number per day) : 1.41
Eggs (number per day) : 1.50
Drinking water : 1 781
Drinking water : 1 918
Drinking water : 1 781
Drinking water : 1 918
Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous Okrug
Taimyr (Dolgan-Nenets) Autonomous Okrug
Indigenous
g/person/day
General
Indigenous
g/person/day
General
population
population
population
population
900 800 700 600 500 400 300 200 100 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900
900 800 700 600 500 400 300 200 100 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900
Milks and cheese
Milks and cheese
Cereals and flour
Cereals and flour
Potatoes
Potatoes
Fruits and vegetables
Fruits and vegetables
Imported and other domestic meat
Imported and other domestic meat
Reindeer and other wild meat
Reindeer and other wild meat
Wild bird meat
Wild bird meat
Marine mammals
Marine mammals
Ocean fish
Ocean fish
Freshwater fish
Freshwater fish
Local plants
Local plants
Eggs (number per day) : 1.43
Eggs (number per day) : 1.80
Eggs (number per day) : 1.30
Eggs (number per day) : 1.54
Drinking water : 1 918
Drinking water : 1 918
Drinking water : 1 918
Drinking water : 1 918
Sakha Republic (Arctic area)
Chukotka Autonomous Okrug
Indigenous
g/person/day
General
Indigenous
g/person/day
General
population
population
population
population
900 800 700 600 500 400 300 200 100 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900
900 800 700 600 500 400 300 200 100 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900
Milks and
cheese
Milks and cheese
Cereals and flour
Cereals and flour
Potatoes
Potatoes
Fruits and vegetables
Fruits and vegetables
Imported and other domestic meat
Imported and other domestic meat
Reindeer and other wild meat
Reindeer and other wild meat
Wild bird meat
Wild bird meat
Marine mammals
Marine mammals
Ocean fish
Ocean fish
Freshwater fish
Freshwater fish
Local plants
Local plants
Eggs (number per day) : 1.65
Eggs (number per day) : 1.73
Eggs (number per day) : 1.08
Eggs (number per day) : 1.43
Drinking water : 1 945
Drinking water : 1 918
Drinking water : 1 781
Drinking water : 1 918
Figure 5·18. Average daily consumption of selected foods by indigenous and general populations in Arctic Russia, by region, g/person, in 1993 (State
Committee of the Russian Federation for Statistics 1994c, 1995; Russian Academy of Sciences 1994a).
Chapter 5 · Peoples of the Arctic
171
Chukotka
Autonomous
%
Okrug
Murmansk
%
Oblast
60
60
Taimyr
40
40
(Dolgan -Nenets)
Nenets
Autonomous
Autonomous
%
%
Okrug
20
20
Okrug
60
ircle
60
C
0
0
rctic
40
A
40
20
Sakha Republic
20
%
(Arctic area)
0
0
60
Yamalo-Nenets
Autonomous
%
40
Okrug
60
20
40
0
20
0
Primary, some secondary
Secondary (special and general)
Higher education
Figure 5·19. Educational attainments of indigenous peoples in Arctic Russia, by region (State Committee of the Russian Federation for Statistics 1994a).
A survey in the Taimyr (Dolgan-Nenets) Autonomous
dards are low. In the Nenets Autonomous Okrug, for exam-
Okrug found that over 90% of indigenous persons felt that
ple, only 14% of rural dwellings have sewage systems, and
traditional occupations, and related fields such as fur farm-
only 18% have running water. Central heating and a supply
ing, should be the basis for their lifestyle in the modern world.
of hot water are also in short supply in many areas.
New independent farms are beginning to appear, often based
New construction of housing in the Arctic has declined by
on traditional family or clan structures. On single farms, the
40% in recent years, compared with a 23% decline for Russia
average number of workers typically ranges from three to
as a whole. Population declines have led to very low prices for
six, and the number of such farms is increasing (Ministry of
housing, compared with other parts of Russia. Nonetheless,
Labor of the Russian Federation and Committee of the State
30% of the indigenous population still live in traditional struc-
Duma on Nationalities 1993).
tures (chum, yaranga) or sub-standard housing, often because
New laws and regulations encourage this type of produc-
housing in rural areas and along migration routes does not
tion, as well as the allocation of lands to private enterprises
exist (Republican Information and Publication Center 1992a,
and individuals. Since many traditional occupations are at
Ministry of Labor of the Russian Federation and Committee
present unprofitable, it will take time for the new system to
of the State Duma on Nationalities 1993, State Committee
reach its potential economic capacity. New production tech-
of the Russian Federation for Statistics 1994a, 1995).
nology and infrastructure, especially in terms of transporting
goods to market, are needed to ensure the success of these
5.11.6. Education
new ventures. Until these potential opportunities are devel-
oped, economic conditions among Russia's indigenous peo-
Education levels among indigenous minorities in Russia are
ples will remain poor (Ministry of Nationalities and Region-
typically low (Figure 5·19). This is a significant factor in lim-
al Politics and Ministry of Economics 1983, Republican In-
iting the economic opportunities for indigenous workers.
formation and Publication Center 1992b, State Committee
There are several possible reasons for this low educational
of the Russian Federation for Statistics 1994a, 1995, Tyu-
attainment: the qualitatively different social environment
men Oblast Committee for Statistics 1994).
found at school, differences between the traditional way of
life and learning and the formal system of school education,
and starting school relatively late in childhood.
5.11.5. Housing
In part, this is due to a lack of indigenous teachers. The
Housing conditions appear to have improved in recent years,
number of indigenous students training for education de-
though mainly as a result of the decline in population which
clined by 36.7% between 1987 and 1992. Most indigenous
has helped ease overcrowding, resulting in more space per
specialists are trained in cultural areas, in which there is, if
resident. In the urban areas of the Murmansk Oblast, there
anything, an overabundance of specialists. Another factor is
is an average of 16.8 m2 per person, while in rural villages
the local availability of schools. Primary schools are located
of the Taimyr (Dolgan-Nenets) Autonomous Okrug, this fig-
in each local village, but secondary education is usually of-
ure is only 8.9. Most residential buildings were built in the
fered only at boarding schools in the regional center. There
1950s and 1960s, and are overdue for maintenance, improve-
are some technical and commercial schools in these centers,
ment, and repairs. In rural areas especially, housing stan-
but they are few.
172
AMAP Assessment Report
While many indigenous students enroll in universities, up
group includes the Saami in the Finnish branch and the
to 90% drop out. They are often inadequately prepared to
Khanty and Mansi in the Ugric branch. Nganasan, Nenets,
handle the rigors of university life, and become frustrated by
Enets, and Selkup are Samodic languages; Evenk and Even
the academic setting. In the end, this contributes to the un-
are Tungus languages; Dolgan is in the Turkic family; and
employment rates of indigenous youth. Similar situations
Eskimo (Yupik), Chukchi, Koryak, Ket, and Yukagir are
can be found in technical schools as well. At the Northern
Paleo-Asiatic languages (Aipin 1994, Slezkine 1994).
Academy in St. Petersburg, academic programs are adapted
to the special needs of indigenous students. A branch of this
5.11.8. Mortality and morbidity
academy will soon open in Khanty-Mansiisk, perhaps in-
creasing the chances of success for indigenous students (Min-
Birth rates have declined in the 1990s, and mortality rates
istry of Labor of the Russian Federation and Committee of
have increased (Figure 5·20), reflected in part by an aging
the State Duma on Nationalities 1993, State Committee of
population. These changes follow general increases in popu-
the Russian Federation for Statistics 1994b, 1995).
lation among indigenous peoples in Russia through most of
the 20th century. Some of the decline is attributable to as-
similation and social change, which have led to smaller fam-
5.11.7. Language
ilies. The average family size of indigenous peoples declined
Prior to the revolution in November 1917, none of the indi-
from 4.7 in 1970 to 4.3 in 1979 to 4.0 in 1989. This process
genous minorities of the Arctic area had a written language.
has also weakened traditional interdependence within indi-
Schools, most of which were run by the church, were few in
genous families, and the customs regarding marriage, includ-
this region. With the exception of a few individuals, most of
ing intermarriage between ethnic groups.
these groups were illiterate. Combined with little knowledge
of the Russian language, this helped isolate them from Russia
30
and the world at large.
In the 1920s, the Soviet government attempted to bring
the northern peoples up to the same standards of education
Infant
and cultural development as the rest of the country. Given
mortality
the migratory lifestyle, remote locations, and cultural tradi-
rate
tions of these peoples, special methods were developed in
20
this attempt. Cultural bases were set up, including schools,
clinics, veterinary units, and other modern facilities. In addi-
tion, the so-called `Red Tents' were established. These were
Birth rate
mobile cultural units, equipped with libraries, medical sup-
plies, radio, and other equipment. The staff of these Red
Tents provided medical assistance, taught literacy, showed
Population
movies, conducted sanitary work, and so forth, to try to
10
growth rate
eradicate `backwardness' among the northern peoples (Slez-
kine 1994).
Recognizing that literacy, especially among adults, would
Death rate
be easier to promote in the indigenous languages at first than
in unfamiliar Russian, the authorities developed writing sys-
tems for each language. At first these were in the Latin alpha-
0
bet, but this was eventually changed to the Cyrillic alphabet
1980
1985
1990
1993
in the 1930s. Developing these writing systems and publish-
Figure 5·20. Rates of birth, death, infant mortality, and natural popula-
ing books in them took time, however, and so the first schools
tion growth (excluding in- and out-migration), averaged over all regions
of Arctic Russia, per 1000 of population, 1980, 1985, 1990, 1993 (State
were taught in Russian.
Committee of the Russian Federation for Statistics 1994a).
This process, in combination with the boarding schools
that took children away from their traditional activities and
Mortality rates are also of great concern. In the North,
left them unprepared for life on the tundra, led to decreasing
the mortality rate of indigenous peoples in 1989 was 10.4
use of indigenous languages. While many are still spoken
per thousand, compared with the rate of 6.6 per thousand
widely, their use has been declining, and Russian is increas-
for other residents of the area. This is also true of mortality
ingly common as the first language. At the time of the 1989
among working-age persons, where indigenous mortality
census, the Nenets language was still considered the mother
rates are three to four times higher than among persons
tongue of 80% of Nenets in the Nenets Autonomous Okrug,
from other areas of Russia. The mortality rate is highest
though this had declined from 85% in 1959. The Nenets
among males aged 20 to 34.
have the largest population of the indigenous minorities in
The overall life expectancy of indigenous persons in Rus-
the Arctic, however, and it is likely that other groups have
sia in 1988-89 was 54 for men, and 65 for women. This is
lost their languages to a greater extent (Kurilov 1996).
10-20 years lower than the Russian average, and about 15
Indigenous peoples' use of their own languages is closely
years lower than the European and North American aver-
correlated with their involvement in traditional activities.
age. These values have declined in the 1990s. Life expectancy
This is due in large part to the range of precise vocabulary
among the general population has also decreased during this
designed for those activities, including many words that can-
period, due to a variety of factors, including increased con-
not be translated adequately into other languages. Such
sumption of alcohol and declining availability and quality of
words include terminology for reindeer depending on age,
health care.
sex, condition, behavior, and other distinctions, as well as
Among the main causes of death are trauma, infectious
tools and implements used in the traditional way of life.
disease (especially tuberculosis), and cardiovascular, para-
The languages of the indigenous minorities of Arctic Rus-
sitic, and respiratory diseases. Diseases related to alcohol are
sia fall into several linguistic families. The Finno-Ugric
especially common. Deaths from these factors exceed the
Chapter 5 · Peoples of the Arctic
173
Russian average by a factor of 2.5. Some of this stems from
Many medical specialists, however, have left the Arctic
social factors leading to high rates of alcoholism and suicide.
zone due to the economic situation, leaving a great demand
These and other disruptions to the health of indigenous peo-
for these skills. To help control tuberculosis, a special pro-
ples as a group threaten to destroy the populations within a
gram was adopted recently which will provide increased num-
few generations.
bers of specialists as well as specialized training for local and
Infant mortality is also very high, at 30 per 1000 among
indigenous health workers (State Committee of the Russian
indigenous peoples. This is 50% higher than among others
Federation for Northern Affairs 1996a).
in indigenous regions, and 70% higher than the Russian av-
Hospitals in indigenous regions provide only two-thirds
erage. A special federal program, `Children of the North,'
of the facilities found in other areas of Russia. Of 19 med-
has been established to address this problem. The highest
ical facilities in these areas, only four were built after 1970,
rates recorded in official statistics are among the Koryak, at
while most were constructed between 1934 and 1948 (Re-
52.6 per 1000, and the Eskimo (Yupik), at 47.6 per 1000
publican Information and Publication Center 1990, Ministry
(Ministry of Labor of the Russian Federation and Commit-
of Labor of the Russian Federation and Committee of the
tee of the State Duma on Nationalities 1993). Lupandin and
State Duma on Nationalities 1993, State Committee of the
Gaer (1990) report infant mortality of 80 to 100 per 1000
Russian Federation for Statistics 1994a).
among the Chukchi in 1989.
Morbidity among northern residents is also high for certain
5.11.10. History of indigenous minorities
diseases. These include many diseases that are associated with
of Arctic Russia
pollution in industrial zones elsewhere such as respiratory,
blood, and skin ailments. `Northern lung' describes a suite of
Since contact with Europeans and others from outside the
respiratory diseases that are chronic among indigenous peo-
Arctic, the indigenous minorities of this region have gone
ples, though perhaps only acute among non-indigenous people.
through several stages of interaction with these newcomers.
This is due to several factors, including lifestyle as well as the
First, the European North and Siberia were included in
greater susceptibility of indigenous peoples to certain diseases
the Russian state, and Christianity was introduced. This was
associated with large, sedentary populations in Europe and
a gradual process over the course of several centuries, reach-
southern Asia. Chronic ear infections are found 16 to 18
ing the Chukotka Peninsula only in the eighteenth century. It
times more frequently among indigenous persons than among
did not greatly influence the traditional activities of the indi-
the immigrant populations. Indigenous residents have 2.5 to
genous peoples. The introduction of the yasak, or tribute pay-
3 times higher incidence of tuberculosis than newcomers.
ments, increased the fur-based economy, but this was done
Dietary changes, including a great increase in carbohy-
using traditional traps. Similarly, Christianity did not result
drate intake compared with traditional diets, may be in part
in substantial changes in traditional beliefs or practices. Dur-
responsible for a higher incidence of gastrointestinal disor-
ing this period, lasting over a century, the tsarist government
ders, which are 2.5 times more common among indigenous
did not introduce education or medical care in the Arctic.
peoples than among those from temperate latitudes. Vitamin
Second, beginning in the 1920s, the Soviet system was in-
deficiencies and dental disease are found in up to 95% of
troduced across Russia. In the Arctic, this meant collectivi-
examined persons.
zation of economic activities as well as the introduction of
The patterns of morbidity reflect lifestyle and residence pat-
basic services including primary health care. Bolshevik ac-
terns. A study in the Nenets Autonomous Okrug found that
tivists came to the north to introduce this new system, but
among the sedentary population, the overall incidence of dis-
only a few indigenous people took part in developing the
ease was 50% higher than among those living on the tundra.
new regime. While this disrupted some aspects of the social
Psychological disorders were 2.5 times higher among sedentary
structure of the traditional cultures, the material aspects of
persons. Eye disease is also common, especially among indige-
life on the tundra were not greatly affected.
nous children, and is often associated with deficits in cardio-
In the early 1960s, however, a third phase brought great
vascular and neural development (Northern Polygon 1990).
disruption. This was the introduction of the huge, multi-pur-
Incidence of diseases, as well as traumas, has increased by
pose state farms, which combined the smaller collective farms
several hundred percent since 1970 (Avtsin et al. 1985, Do-
that had been established on the basis of single activities.
bropravov 1991, Ministry of Labor of the Russian Federa-
While the collective farms had been largely under local con-
tion and Committee of the State Duma on Nationalities 1993,
trol, the state farms were too large to be run in that fashion.
Boyarskii 1993, 1994).
Instead, administrative authority was vested in a leader who
Males in Russia are heavy smokers, with a prevalence of
was far removed from most of the activities of the farm. While
70%. Among pregnant women, it is the reverse. Among wo-
indigenous people had run many of the collective farms, they
men in an AMAP-related study, only 4 to 5% of pregnant
could now only aspire to becoming heads of work teams with-
women smoked. Recent social and cultural trends in Russia
in the state farm structure.
toward western habits, however, seem to be leading to large
The state farm administration, physically and culturally
increases in smoking among young women (J.Ø. Odland
separated from the workers, was often unable to make appro-
pers. comm.).
priate decisions, while the workers were unable to influence
the directions they received. It is quite possible that this sense
of frustration and powerlessness was responsible in part for
5.11.9. Health care
the increased rates of alcoholism seen among the indigenous
Total medical personnel and hospital beds per capita have
peoples at this time (Slezkine 1994, Aipin 1990 and 1994).
not declined in most areas, but support facilities and materi-
als are in short supply. The number of doctors per 1000 resi-
5.11.11. Development and prospects for the future
dents ranges from 2.9 in the Nenets Autonomous Okrug to
of indigenous minorities
4.9 in the Taimyr (Dolgan-Nenets) Autonomous Okrug.
Hospital beds per 1000 residents range from 11.2 in the
The Russian North contains abundant natural resources, in-
Murmansk Oblast to 23.8 in the Taimyr (Dolgan-Nenets)
cluding timber, oil and gas, coal, and minerals. For centu-
Autonomous Okrug.
ries, these areas and resources have been explored and ex-
174
AMAP Assessment Report
ploited, providing raw materials for Russia and creating the
digenous families. The Russian government has also ap-
legacy of an industrial culture. Northern regions, including
proved the recommendations of the State Committee of the
the Arctic areas and those bordering them, contribute one
Russian Federation for Northern Affairs (1996a), which in-
fifth of Russia's GNP, producing 75% of Russia's oil, 92%
clude the following items:
of its gas, 15% of its coal, and almost all of its non-ferrous
· Conservation of the environment and improvement of the
mineral ore concentrate (Boyarskii 1993, 1994, State Com-
ecology.
mittee of the Russian Federation for Publishing 1995, Shu-
· Improvement of living conditions, energy supply, and so-
stov 1996).
cial life.
The growth in this development has been dramatic, and
· Development of traditional economies, employment, and
its effects have been felt throughout Russia and throughout
local production.
the Arctic (State Committee of the Russian Federation for
· Development of medical and sanitary care.
Publishing 1995). This trend is expected to continue, as large
· Development of communication.
hydrocarbon reserves are known to exist in the Naryan-Mar
· Development of education and culture, including spiritual
region and offshore near Novaya Zemlya.
rebirth.
Most of the development to date has not taken place in
uninhabited wilderness, but in the homelands of the indige-
Environmental contaminants, though perhaps not the
nous peoples of northern Russia. The consequences for indi-
greatest current challenge to the future of these peoples in
genous peoples have been severe. Many lands and rivers once
most areas, are nonetheless a serious concern in the long
used for reindeer herding, fishing, and hunting have been
term, for they may strike at the heart of the traditional ways
lost to industrial expansion and associated pollution. While
of life that hold the greatest hope for protecting the identi-
only 2% of the Russian Arctic zone experiences industrial
ties and cultures of Arctic peoples. Disrupting local and re-
and pollution impacts at a high level, some 68% of the total
gional ecology and creating concern about the safety of local
reindeer pasture area is disrupted. Nature reserves cover
foods, such as reindeer meat, are potential problems created
only 2% of the region, which is considered one-fifth of the
by environmental contaminants.
minimum needed to sustain traditional ways of life (Yelena
The health and cultures of indigenous peoples are inextri-
Sumina pers. comm.).
cably tied to the lands, rivers, and seas that sustain them.
These economic shifts have also disrupted the traditional
Legislation, economic opportunity, and other factors may
ways of life of indigenous peoples, threatening the cultural
help protect these cultures, but without a healthy local envi-
diversity of the Russian Arctic and the continued existence
ronment, all other efforts will be in vain (Krushanov 1981,
of groups with low populations. Patterns of resource use,
Shumilov 1985, Slavin 1985, Kozlov 1988, Sangi 1989,
group dynamics within a culture, and the social values asso-
Aipin 1990, 1994, Korobkova 1991, Simchenko 1992, Fon-
ciated with living close to the land have all been changed as
dahl 1993, Ministry of the Environment and Natural Re-
a result of contact and interaction with large-scale extractive
sources of the Russian Federation 1993, Khomich 1995,
industries (Evdokimova 1995).
Kotov and Kononov 1995, Kucher 1995, Belikovich 1996).
The social cost of this upheaval is great. While access to
education and the opportunity to participate in the modern
5.11.12. Murmansk Oblast
economy are available, in practice it is often difficult for in-
5.11.12.1. Geography
digenous peoples to take advantage of these. Students are
usually unprepared for university and workers lack the skills
The Murmansk Oblast, including the Kola Peninsula, is ap-
needed for industrial jobs. Abandoning traditional lands and
proximately 144 900 km2. It has several large rivers, hills,
ways of life often leads to alienation and loss of self-esteem
and the Keiva Plateau which slopes southward.
and identity.
These problems present a substantial threat to the mean-
5.11.12.2. Population
ingful survival of peoples and their cultures. While individu-
als may continue to live in these areas, their traditions, lan-
The population of the Murmansk Oblast is 1 164 586, with
guages, and patterns of life are vanishing. In this context,
468 300 living in the city of Murmansk. There are several
the Russian Federation has passed new legislation designed
other large cities in the Oblast, and most residents live in
to help protect the interests of indigenous minorities in the
urban areas.
Russian North, but implementing and enforcing these new
The primary indigenous group living in the Oblast are the
laws will take time and effort.
Saami, most of whom live in the Lovozero and Kola districts
Since 1926, over 300 acts and some 1000 regulations have
of the eastern Kola Peninsula. The town of Lovozero, with
been put in place to address the problems facing indigenous
about 3000 inhabitants, is the largest Saami community.
peoples in Russia. During this time, policies of assimilation
There are ten indigenous communities in the Oblast, all be-
have generally failed, disrupting existing societal structures
tween 10% and 50% indigenous.
while providing nothing to take their place (Vakhtin 1992,
Slezkine 1994).
5.11.12.3. Diet
The future of the indigenous peoples of the Russian Arc-
tic is unclear. Many factors must be taken into account, not
Reindeer meat, fish (cod, herring, halibut, salmon, rockfish,
the least of which is the ability of the indigenous minorities
haddock, whitefish, plaice), and birds (guillemots, murres,
to determine their own destiny. Traditional practices or
kittiwakes) are the main sources of food for the Saami in the
closely related economic activities, such as reindeer herding
Oblast. Reindeer meat is an important food source for all
and fur farming, offer alternatives to other forms of devel-
residents, because it is relatively inexpensive and available in
opment and can help support indigenous communities in
the region. Other important sources of subsistence food in-
ways consistent with their cultural values and patterns.
clude the mountain hare and moose.
Federal programs in Russia are beginning to support tra-
In the traditional diet, reindeer meat is the predominant
ditional land use practices, including family enterprises. Fi-
food in winter months, from November through May. It is
nancial assistance has been given to some 1500 northern in-
eaten fresh, dried, and boiled. In summer, from May through
Chapter 5 · Peoples of the Arctic
175
November, fish and birds are more common. Salmon and
5.11.13.4. Employment
trout were customarily taken in large numbers, but there is
currently a quota on the Ponoi River limiting the harvest to
Reindeer herding, hunting, fishing, and fur and leather
25 to 30 kg of salmon per person per year.
craftsmanship are the main occupations of indigenous peo-
ples of the Nenets Autonomous Okrug. The region is one of
the main reindeer breeding areas in Russia, with 11 reindeer
5.11.12.4. Employment
breeding farms. In the Bolshezemelskaya district, reindeer
Reindeer herding, hunting, fishing, and producing reindeer
breeding provides over 80% of the income.
fur handicrafts are the most common occupations of Saami
Reindeer are grazed in summer on the coastal tundra. In
in the Murmansk Oblast. Small enterprises, however, account
autumn, the herds move south along strictly defined pas-
for less than 10% of the economy of the region. Mining and
sages to southern tundra, forest tundra, and taiga. The mi-
smelting of non-ferrous metals is the major industry, and is
grations may cover 1800 km. Availability of reindeer moss is
also the largest polluter. Tourism is growing, but has brought
the chief limitation on the size of the reindeer population in
problems, such as leasing of fishing rights to western tour
the Okrug (Filimonova 1973, Dobropravov 1991, Khomich
companies, which prevents local residents from using their
1995).
traditional fishing areas.
Reindeer herding is done primarily in the Lovozero Dis-
5.11.14. Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous Okrug
trict, in the Ponoi River basin. Rangelands in the Oblast
5.11.14.1. Geography
cover 32 000 km2. The stock farm Tundra had 36 500 rein-
deer on January 1, 1992, plus an additional 3500 privately-
The Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous Okrug encompasses
owned reindeer. Reindeer herding teams include many in-
750 300 km2, including the Yamal Peninsula and the lower
digenous peoples. Saami from the Oblast are joined by Ne-
Ob valley.
nets and Komi from the nearby regions, as well as a few eth-
nic Russians. Reindeer are driven on to the Keiva Plateau in
5.11.14.2. Population
summer, and south in winter. Herding practices had become
more intensive, but are now shifting back to free-range graz-
The Okrug has a population of 494 844. The Nenets, Khan-
ing in summer, which is the traditional Saami method. The
ty, and Yukagir are the most numerous of the indigenous mi-
chief limitation on growth of the herd is that the migration
norities in the Okrug. The administrative center is Salekhard,
routes are restricted and cannot support additional animals
with a population of 32 000, 15% of whom are indigenous.
as they move from summer to winter range and back.
There are 45 indigenous communities in the Okrug, of which
30 are over 50% indigenous.
The Nenets live primarily in the Yamal and Gydan Penin-
5.11.13. Nenets Autonomous Okrug
sulas, and the basins of the lower Ob River, and the Nadym,
5.11.13.1. Geography
Taz, and Pur Rivers. These areas are primarily tundra and
The Nenets Autonomous Okrug is approximately 176 700
forest tundra. The Khanty live in the upper and middle
km2 in area. It is mostly tundra and forest tundra, with only
reaches of the Taz River.
a little taiga. The western Kanino-Timansk district is largely
an extensive marsh, including the Kanin Peninsula, which is
5.11.14.3. Diet
excellent summer range for reindeer. The Malozemelsk re-
gion is a large coastal tundra marsh between the Indiga and
Reindeer meat and fish are the largest parts of the diet, with
Pechora rivers, and has large reindeer areas that are used at
reindeer the more significant of the two. Additional sources
various times during the year. The Pechora River flows into
of food include moose, brown bear, bighorn sheep, and al-
the Okrug in a wide valley, and the western bank of the Pe-
pine hare. Lesser sources include seal, beluga whale, ptarmi-
chora is home to a large reindeer breeding farm. The Malo-
gan, ducks, geese, and snowy owl.
zemelsko Pripechora district has over one-third of the rein-
deer of the region. Eastern regions of the Okrug, including
5.11.14.4. Employment
the Bolshezemelsk tundra and Yugorsk Peninsula, are the
least assimilated. They are less marshy, and are widely used
Reindeer herding, hunting, fishery, and fur and leather crafts-
for reindeer.
manship are the primary occupations of the indigenous peo-
ples of the Okrug. Small enterprises account for about 15%
of the economy of the region. The major industries are oil
5.11.13.2. Population
and gas production, which are also the sources of most of
There are 53 912 people in the Nenets Autonomous Okrug.
the pollution as well as disruptions to the tundra and rivers
Most indigenous residents of the Okrug are Nenets, though
of the region.
other groups are represented as well. Most Nenets live in
The Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous Okrug is one of the
tundra and forest tundra areas of the Okrug. The adminis-
largest reindeer breeding areas in Russia. The present
trative center is Naryan-Mar, with 19 900 residents, of
stock is over 530 000 animals, of which 230 000 are part
whom 20% are indigenous. There are 29 indigenous com-
of the communal herds, and 300 000 are privately owned.
munities in the Okrug, 11 of which are over 50% indi-
The migration routes run for thousands of kilometers, but
genous.
industrial development has had a large impact on range-
lands. Approximately 68 000 km2 have been polluted (by
oil seepage and other spilled materials), or damaged (by
5.11.13.3. Diet
caterpillar tractors and cross-country vehicles), or are for
Reindeer meat is the primary food source in the Okrug. Addi-
other reasons no longer available for use by the reindeer
tional sources include moose, brown bear, bighorn sheep, and
herders. This has greatly reduced the productivity of the
alpine hare. Lesser sources are seal, beluga whale, ptarmigan,
reindeer industry (Shapalin 1965, Evdokimova 1995,
ducks, geese, and snowy owl.
Kucher 1995).
176
AMAP Assessment Report
forest tundra. The migration routes are 500-600 km long,
5.11.15. Taimyr (Dolgan-Nenets) Autonomous Okrug
and have been overgrazed, limiting the growth of the
5.11.15.1. Geography
herds.
The Taimyr (Dolgan-Nenets) Autonomous Okrug covers
Since the opening of year-round navigation of the Yenisey
862 100 km2. Of this area, 13% is reindeer moss, 10% mos-
River in the 1970s, combined with the construction of the
sy and tussock tundra, and 9% shrub tundra. The remaining
Messoyakha-Norilsk pipeline, winter rangelands on the west
area is largely comprised of forests.
side of the Yenisey have been inaccessible to the herders, caus-
ing the effective loss of large areas of rangeland (Shumilov
1985, Korobkova 1991).
5.11.15.2. Population
The Okrug has 55 803 people. The largest city is the port
5.11.16. Arctic districts of the Sakha Republic
of Dudinka on the Yenisey River, which has 36 300 resi-
(Yakutia)
dents, of whom 15% are indigenous. There are 20 indige-
5.11.16.1. Geography
nous communities in the Okrug, of which 14 are over 50%
indigenous.
Five districts of the Sakha Republic fall within the Arc-
The indigenous peoples of the Okrug are the Dolgan in
tic. The districts are Anabarsk (population about 4000),
the southern Taimyr and the Khatanga River basin, the Ne-
Allaykhovsk (5200), Bulun (14 600), Ust-Yansk (31 100),
nets in the western areas of the region, including the lower
and Nizhnekolymsk (11 700). These districts cover
Yenisey River and the Yenisey Bay coast, the Nganasan in
432 300 km2.
the Kheta River basin, the Evenk in the southern parts of the
The terrain is largely tundra and forest tundra. The
Okrug, the Enets in the western parts of the Okrug, includ-
northern coast is lowland lichen and tussock tundra, but
ing the lower Yenisey, plus some members of other indige-
forest tundra begins within 100-200 km south of the coast.
nous groups.
East of the Kolyma River, the region is a vast lowland tun-
dra plain.
5.11.15.3. Diet
5.11.16.2. Population
Reindeer is the main source of food, and fish and birds are
also significant sources. Secondary sources of food include
The region has 66 632 residents. The Yakut population of
moose, brown bear, bighorn sheep, Siberian ibex, alpine
the area is 22 255, and their traditional activities are largely
hare, ringed seal, common seal, beluga whale, bearded seal,
similar to those of the indigenous minorities, who include
ducks, geese, snowy owl, and ptarmigan.
the Even, Evenk, Yukagir, and Chukchi. There are 19 indige-
The main item in the traditional diet is reindeer, both
nous communities in Arctic Sakha, of which two are over
wild and domestic. It is eaten smoked, dried, and fresh. Fish
50% indigenous minorities.
is eaten dry, smoked, or boiled, most commonly between
June and October, though sliced frozen fish (stroganina) is
5.11.16.3. Diet
popular in winter. In summer, fresh or lightly salted fish is
popular, and boiled fish is popular throughout the year. The
Reindeer meat, fish, ringed and common seal, and birds are
most commonly used species are cisco, whitefish, herring,
the main sources of food. Secondary sources of food include
Siberian sturgeon, Arctic char, nelma, muksun, Arctic gray-
moose, Kolyma moose, alpine hare, ptarmigan, brown bear,
ling, pike, perch, smelt, and others. Marine mammals are a
whitefish, ducks, geese, Siberian sturgeon, pike, berries,
relatively small food source.
roots, nuts, and herbs. In coastal areas, fish are of great
Nganasans involved in reindeer herding eat mainly veni-
importance. Inland, meats and fat are the most common
son, boiled, frozen, or smoked. After a deer is killed, they
food, and may be eaten fresh, roasted, barbecued, dried, or
will eat fresh meat, liver, and kidneys. A strong meat bouil-
smoked. Organs are commonly eaten, including liver, kid-
lon is also popular.
neys, lungs, and bone marrow. Evens are known for eating
the intestines and blood sausage of reindeer. Soups are also
popular.
5.11.15.4. Employment
Small enterprises comprise less than 10% of the economy,
5.11.16.4. Employment
and include reindeer herding and the production of fur and
leather handicrafts. Mining is the largest enterprise in the
Reindeer herding is the main occupation of indigenous mi-
area, although the mining complex of Norilsk is not part of
norities of Arctic Sakha, especially for Evenks and Chukchi,
the Okrug. The port facilities at Dudinka, however, are with-
and commercial hunting and fur trapping are also impor-
in the Okrug. Mining is also the main polluter of the region,
tant, especially for Yukagirs. Northern Sakha produces one-
releasing large amounts of heavy metals and sulfur dioxide
third of Russia's Arctic fox pelts.
into the air.
Fishing is also important, as several Evenk and Yukagir
The reindeer population of the Okrug included 595 000
villages are located at good fishing sites in the forest tundra
wild reindeer in 1990, which had been reduced by hunting
zone. Coastal people are involved in fishing and marine
from 650 000 reindeer in 1985. Hunting of wild reindeer is
mammal hunting.
an important occupation of Nganasans. The population of
Small enterprises account for less than 10% of the regio-
domesticated reindeer includes herds in the Ust-Yenisey dis-
nal economy. Fires have destroyed reindeer range and migra-
trict (44 600 animals), Khatanga (19 000), and Dudinka
tion routes, damaging the economic capacity of the area,
(13 500). The rangeland assigned to state reindeer farms
which is a significant concern in Sakha. The major industry
covers 10 000 - 40 000 km2.
of the area is mining, especially tin and polymetallic ores.
In summer, the reindeer herds roam throughout the
This is also the chief, though relatively small, source of pol-
East Siberian Lowland and through the tundra of the West
lution in the area (Korobkova 1991, Simchenko 1992, Kha-
Siberian Plain. In winter, the herds are driven south to
tilayev 1993).
Chapter 5 · Peoples of the Arctic
177
5.11.17. Chukotka Autonomous Okrug
5.12. Development and the future
5.11.17.1. Geography
While environmental contaminants pose a potential threat
The Chukotka Autonomous Okrug is 737 700 km2 in area,
to the survival of indigenous peoples and their cultures, in
encompassing forest in the west, tundra in the central and
many areas there are more immediate concerns for the fu-
northern areas, and mountainous terrain on the eastern end
ture of the peoples of the Arctic. These cultures are often
of the Chukchi Peninsula.
vulnerable to social and economic changes of modern life.
While this section does not presume to address this complex
issue, it is important to bear in mind that indigenous ways
5.11.17.2. Population
of life are changing rapidly, and that such change is often
There are 163 934 residents of the Okrug. The administra-
beyond the control of the peoples themselves.
tive center is Anadyr, with a population of 15 200, of whom
It is necessary to protect traditional lands and waters,
10% are indigenous. There are 40 indigenous communities
hunting rights and methods, and other cultural practices to
in the Okrug, of which 23 are over 50% indigenous.
ensure that the residents of the Arctic, individually and col-
The indigenous peoples of the Okrug include the Chukchi
lectively, can determine their own future. A number of na-
throughout the Okrug, Eskimo (Yupik) along the eastern
tions have enacted legislation designed to provide some of
coast, Even in the western areas, Chuvan in the southern
these protections, but implementing these laws can be diffi-
parts, Koryak in the south, bordering the Koryak Autono-
cult, and some contain provisions that have had unintended
mous Okrug, and small numbers of other groups.
consequences detrimental to the interests of the peoples they
Of indigenous Chukotkans, 30% live in sedentary vil-
seek to protect (Minority Rights Group 1993).
lages along the coast, and the rest are involved in inland
Many of the changes now taking place in the Arctic have
reindeer herding activities.
improved the lives of indigenous peoples, through greater
economic opportunity, better medical care, and the benefi-
cial aspects of modern technology. These changes can bring
5.11.17.3. Diet
with them dangers of social and cultural disruption, and it is
The traditional diet varies between coastal dwellers and in-
essential that indigenous peoples have the ability to take
land reindeer herders. The reindeer herders' diet in winter,
part in all matters that affect them, and to make the final de-
from October to May, is mostly reindeer, eaten fresh, dried,
cisions regarding their own futures. This is as true with envi-
boiled, or frozen. In summer, their diet includes fish and ma-
ronmental contaminants as it is with hunting rights, land
rine mammal meat and fat, which are obtained from coastal
claims, and self-governance.
people in exchange for reindeer meat. Coastal dwellers eat
The various aspects of a way of life cannot be separated
marine mammals, eaten fresh, dried, boiled, and frozen, and
from one another, but must be addressed as a complex sys-
fish throughout the year, as well as reindeer meat from in-
tem in which each part is tied to all other parts. Examining
land. Marine mammal meat and blubber are often aged, and
the impacts of contaminants in isolation from other changes
also seasoned with wild plants. Subsistence hunting in the
prevents both an understanding of their true impacts and the
Okrug produces six to eight thousand tonnes of meat per
possibility of achieving a lasting solution to the problem.
year, as well as one thousand tonnes of fat (i.e., from terres-
Thus, future work to address the problems of contaminants
trial mammals) and blubber (i.e., from marine mammals).
in the Arctic must also consider the full story of the lives of
Arctic residents, and must draw on this experience in efforts
to avoid damage caused by these insidious threats to their
5.11.17.4. Employment
future.
For the Chukchi, the main occupations are reindeer herding,
One threat to the future of indigenous peoples deserves
terrestrial and marine hunting, and producing ivory and fur
special attention in this section. Industrial development, if
handicrafts. For the Eskimo (Yupik), fur farming, marine hunt-
done without consultation with local residents, can have
ing, and fishing are the chief occupations. Small enterprises ac-
a devastating effect on both local ecosystems and local
count for 15% of the economy, and mining is the major industry.
patterns of resource use. Such large-scale development
The large state farms in Chukotka are being dismantled,
often takes place on hunting lands and waters, cuts across
replaced by individual farms, family communities, coopera-
migratory paths, and forces the relocation of settlements
tive, and other non-state-owned ventures. During this reor-
or camps. These, in turn, can alter hunting, fishing, and
ganization, reindeer herding has suffered. In 1989, there were
herding patterns by changing peoples' ability to reach
500 000 reindeer in the Okrug. By 1993, the population had
areas, or by changing the patterns of the game in areas
declined to 400 000 of which 30 000 were privately owned.
that are used.
The reindeer in the Okrug are of two types. Tundra reindeer
This type of development, usually associated with mining,
are smaller, with more fat, averaging 80-120 kg. In the west,
oil and gas, and hydroelectricity, is increasingly common
the forest reindeer are taller, with less fat, and weigh up to
throughout the circumpolar North. As southern resources
130 kg. There are a total of 420 000 km2 of reindeer range-
are used and new technologies are developed, northern areas
lands, including 60 000 km2 of winter ranges. The total car-
are becoming more attractive for development. This trend
rying capacity of these lands is estimated at 550 000 reindeer.
includes remote areas, which often harbor the most tradi-
The Anadyr district is important in reindeer breeding,
tional indigenous communities remaining. Roads to these
having one-third of the Chukotka stock. The Bering district
areas increase access by outsiders, and help speed social and
is the only one that is self-sufficient in meat production, al-
economic change. While economic opportunities may come
though adequate winter grazing range is problematic. The
with development, the benefits to the local communities are
Bilibino district has one-quarter of the Chukotka stock, but
often small.
tundra fires in 1991 caused severe problems, and today the
For development to co-exist with indigenous cultures,
district has trouble producing sufficient meat for its needs
there must be close cooperation between the developers and
(Golubchikova 1985-94, State Committee of the Russian
local residents, and the local residents must be able to make
Federation for Statistics 1993, Kotov and Kononov 1995).
meaningful decisions about matters that affect them.
178
AMAP Assessment Report
5.13. Indigenous knowledge
While the results of any of these projects cannot be known
and environmental contaminants
in advance, indigenous knowledge and the involvement of
indigenous peoples is an area where greater attention is
Indigenous peoples are keen observers of the natural envi-
needed in future work on environmental contaminants.
ronment, and are acutely attuned to small ecological shifts.
Recently, there has been great interest in applying this exper-
tise in a number of Arctic environmental arenas, especially
5.14. Discussion and conclusions
wildlife management (Brooke 1993). There has also been in-
terest in exploring the potential applications of indigenous
This chapter has given an introduction to the inhabitants of
knowledge to research concerning environmental contami-
the Arctic. There is great diversity of landscapes, cultures,
nants.
living standards, economic opportunities, diets, resource use,
To date, there has been relatively little research done on
and other aspects of human society in the circumpolar north.
this topic, and the observations and knowledge of indige-
This diversity is apparent among nations, as this chapter has
nous peoples have been largely ignored. Some studies and
shown, and also among communities and individuals.
discoveries have developed from phenomena first noted by
While such a range of activities, ways of life, perspectives,
indigenous people. However, there have been few systematic
and values is a source of vitality, it also confounds our at-
attempts to document what is known to the elders, hunters,
tempts to summarize the characteristics of the Arctic popu-
herders, gatherers, and fishermen of the Arctic in order to
lation. Statistical averages may conceal widely ranging fig-
see whether this collective knowledge can shed light on the
ures, and demographic categories appropriate to societies in
shared concerns of scientists and residents.
the temperate zone may obscure important facets of life in
In the course of preparing this assessment, AMAP con-
the Arctic.
ducted a survey of available literature and other sources to
For example, the variability in dietary patterns makes
determine whether available indigenous knowledge could
generalized, quantitative analyses of dietary intakes of lim-
add to the report. Apart from the few instances where such
ited utility for characterizing individual exposure to and risk
knowledge has led to discoveries such as Arctic haze, there
from contaminants. A qualitative assessment of intakes,
is little available at this time, primarily because the basic re-
combined with analyses of contaminant burdens in specific
search to document this knowledge has not yet been con-
foods, can, however, lead to more focused analyses of parti-
ducted. This section briefly outlines some methods by which
cular dietary patterns of concern.
indigenous peoples and their knowledge can contribute more
Similarly, employment and income statistics often imply
directly to future work.
great disadvantages for Arctic residents. While this impres-
In September 1994, the Government of Iceland hosted the
sion may be accurate, the statistics may not reveal an exten-
Seminar on the Integration of Indigenous Peoples Knowl-
sive and productive subsistence economy that exists outside
edge, designed to provide substantive recommendations to
the better-documented cash economy.
the Arctic Environmental Protection Strategy (AEPS) and its
Despite these cautions, the descriptions in this chapter
programs, including AMAP. The recommendations included
demonstrate certain broad similarities across the countries
the following:
and regions of the Arctic. The Arctic population is, in gen-
· Indigenous Peoples should be involved in the scientific
eral, young. In many regions, birth rates are high, and infant
monitoring of pollutants and contribute their observa-
mortality is low or declining. The exception is Russia, where
tions on pollution effects. Indigenous participation can in
the economic situation has caused extensive emigration, and
many cases fill gaps in the AMAP monitoring program
declining health care has led to increased mortality of all age
and can provide on-site and continuous monitoring effort
groups.
which is also of value in climate change studies.
Arctic populations typically live in close contact with the
· Indigenous perceptions of risk need greater attention by
local environment. This is especially true of indigenous peo-
AMAP and government authorities. Information dissemi-
ples, but also applies to many of the other inhabitants of the
nation and policy formulation must take into account dif-
region. While Iceland and the Faeroe Islands have no indige-
ferent cultural perceptions and attitudes toward pollution
nous peoples, local foods remain important dietary and cul-
and its potential effects on human health.
tural resources. Use of local and indigenous foods is a com-
· Indigenous Peoples should be provided with education
mon characteristic of indigenous groups in the Arctic, and a
and training opportunities which would facilitate their
wide range of animals and plants are used in this way. Meats
participation in AMAP and the AEPS (Arctic Environ-
and other animal products, especially from reindeer or cari-
mental Protection Strategy 1994).
bou, marine mammals, and fish, account for the vast major-
ity of indigenous foods.
These recommendations together describe the basic prin-
Living standards vary by country. In North America,
ciples that must underlie efforts to involve indigenous peo-
Greenland (compared with Denmark), and Russia, living
ples and their knowledge.
standards in the Arctic are on average substantially lower
The Inuit Circumpolar Conference, in a report to AMAP,
than elsewhere in each country. Housing is in demand and
identified several specific projects which could be carried out
crowded, and often lacks both modern conveniences and
to start including indigenous knowledge in the work of AMAP.
basic amenities such as running water. Jobs are scarce, and
These included:
advanced schooling is available only outside the region. In
· Documentation and analysis of observed environmental
the Nordic countries, this distinction is not as apparent, and
change.
Arctic populations enjoy housing, employment, and educa-
· Documenting elders' observations and perceptions.
tion opportunities that are similar to the overall population
· Establishing local monitoring programs.
of each country.
· Assessing indigenous perceptions of risks and impacts
As an indication of overall health, life expectancies in the
from contaminants.
Arctic areas of each country are lower than the national av-
· A program for information and communication regard-
erages. This is largely due to high accident rates, as well as
ing human health.
the physical and psychological stresses of the Arctic climate.
Chapter 5 · Peoples of the Arctic
179
Specific diseases vary, often by ethnicity. While this may be
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Chapter 5 · Peoples of the Arctic
183
Document Outline
- Go to opening screen
- 5.1. Introduction
- 5.2. United States: Alaska
- 5.2.1. Geography
- 5.2.2. Population
- 5.2.3. Hunting, fishing, and gathering
- 5.2.4. Diet
- 5.2.5. Employment
- 5.2.6. Housing
- 5.2.7. Education
- 5.2.8. Language
- 5.2.9. Mortality and morbidity
- 5.2.10. Health care
- 5.3. Canada
- 5.3.1. Geography
- 5.3.2. Population
- 5.3.3. Hunting, fishing, and gathering
- 5.3.4. Diet
- 5.3.5. Employment
- 5.3.6. Housing
- 5.3.7. Education
- 5.3.8. Language
- 5.3.9. Mortality and morbidity
- 5.3.10 . Health care
- 5.4. Denmark: Greenland
- 5.4.1. Geography
- 5.4.2. Population
- 5.4.3. Hunting, fishing, and gathering
- 5.4.4. Diet
- 5.4.5. Employment
- 5.4.6. Housing
- 5.4.7. Education
- 5.4.8. Language
- 5.4.9. Mortality and morbidity
- 5.4.10 . Health care
- 5.5. Iceland
- 5.5.1 Geography
- 5.5.2. Population
- 5.5.3. Diet
- 5.5.4. Employment
- 5.5.5. Housing
- 5.5.6. Education
- 5.5.7. Language
- 5.5.8. Mortality and morbidity
- 5.5.9. Health care
- 5.6. Denmark: The Faeroe Islands
- 5.6.1. Geography
- 5.6.2 Population
- 5.6.3. Diet
- 5.6.4. Employment
- 5.6.5. Housing
- 5.6.6. Education
- 5.6.7. Language
- 5.6.8. Mortality and morbidity
- 5.6.9. Health care
- 5.7. Saami
- 5.7.1. Geography
- 5.7.2. Population
- 5.7.3. Diet
- 5.7.4. Employment
- 5.7.5. Language
- 5.8. Norway
- 5.8.1. Geography
- 5.8.2. Population
- 5.8.3. Diet
- 5.8.4. Employment
- 5.8.5. Housing
- 5.8.6. Education
- 5.8.7. Language
- 5.8.8. Mortality and morbidity
- 5.8.9. Health care
- 5.9. Sweden
- 5.9.1. Geography
- 5.9.2. Population
- 5.9.3. Diet
- 5.9.4. Employment
- 5.9.5. Housing
- 5.9.6. Education
- 5.9.7. Mortality and morbidity
- 5.9.8. Health care
- 5.10. Finland
- 5.10.1. Geography
- 5.10.2. Population
- 5.10.3. Diet
- 5.10.4. Employment
- 5.10.5. Housing
- 5.10.6. Education
- 5.10.7. Language
- 5.10.8. Mortality and morbidity
- 5.11. Russia
- 5.11.1. Geography
- 5.11.2. Population
- 5.11.3. Diet
- 5.11.4. Employment
- 5.11.5. Housing
- 5.11.6. Education
- 5.11.7. Language
- 5.11.8. Mortality and morbidity
- 5.11.9. Health care
- 5.11.10. History of indigenous minorities of Arctic Russia
- 5.11.11. Development and prospects for the future of indigenous minorities
- 5.11.12. Murmansk Oblast
- 5.11.13. Nenets Autonomous Okrug
- 5.11.14. Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous Okrug
- 5.11.15. Taimyr (Dolgan-Nenets) Autonomous Okrug
- 5.11.16. Arctic districts of the Sakha Republic (Yakutia)
- 5.11.17. Chukotka Autonomous Okrug
- 5.12. Development and the future
- 5.13. Indigenous knowledge and environmental contaminants
- 5.14. Discussion and conclusions
- Acknowledgements
- References