1
Introduction
ROSING
MINEK
Environmental protection
To implement the A E P S , five working
of the Arctic ­
groups were instituted:
a short history
Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme
(AMAP), with responsibilities to monitor the
Concerns about contaminants in the Arctic date
levels and assess the effects of anthropogenic
back at least 30 years, with an increasing and
pollutants in all compartments of the Arctic
broadening awareness since the early 1970s. In
environment.
the spring of 1989, Finland proposed a confer-
ence on the protection of the Arctic environ-
Conservation of Arctic Flora and Fauna
ment. The idea was favorably received by the
(CAFF), with responsibilities to facilitate the
governments of the other circumpolar countries:
exchange of information and coordination of
Canada, Denmark/Greenland, Iceland, Norway,
research on species and habitats of Arctic flora
Sweden, the Soviet Union, and the United
and fauna.
States. The first preparatory meetings were held
Emergency Prevention, Preparedness and
in Rovaniemi, Finland, in September 1989,
Response (EPPR), with responsibilities to pro-
which started the `Rovaniemi process'.
vide a framework for future cooperation in
One idea agreed upon early was to produce
responding to the threat of Arctic environmen-
a series of reports concerning the potential pol-
tal emergencies.
lutants in different parts of the Arctic environ-
ment and its ecosystems. These initial `State of
Protection of the Arctic Marine Environment
the Arctic Environment' reports were pre-
(PAME), with responsibilities to take preventa-
sented at the First Arctic Ministerial Confer-
tive and other measures directly or through
ence in Rovaniemi, Finland in June 1991. The
competent international organizations regard-
ministerial conference was a breakthrough in
ing marine pollution in the Arctic, irrespective
the development of international cooperation
of origin.
for the protection of the Arctic, and led to the
Sustainable Development and Utilization
adoption of the Arctic Environmental
(SDU), with responsibilities to propose steps
Protection Strategy (AEPS).
governments should take to meet their com-
The objectives of the AEPS, as adopted in
mitment to sustainable development of the
the Rovaniemi Declaration, are as follows:
Arctic, including the sustainable use of renew-
· to protect the Arctic ecosystems, including
able resources by indigenous peoples.
humans;
Since the First Arctic Ministerial Conference in
· to provide for the protection, enhancement
1991, two further conferences have been held,
and restoration of environmental quality and
in Nuuk, Greenland in 1993, and in Inuvik,
sustainable utilization of natural resources,
Canada in 1996. A fourth AEPS Ministerial
including their use by local populations and
Conference, in Norway in 1997, will consider
indigenous peoples in the Arctic;
this report and its recommendations. Follow-
· to recognize and, to the extent possible, seek
ing this conference, the AEPS and its programs
to accommodate the traditional and cultural
will be incorporated under the newly estab-
needs, values and practices of indigenous
lished Arctic Council.
peoples as determined by themselves, related
to the protection of the Arctic environment;
· to review regularly the state of the Arctic
environment;
AMAP
· to identify, reduce and, as a final goal, elimi-
AMAP's first objective has been to provide
nate pollution.
information for a comprehensive assessment
Moreover, in adopting the A E P S , the govern-
report on threats from pollution to Arctic eco-
ments of the eight circumpolar countries for-
systems. The assessment was to identify possi-
mally recognized the importance of including
ble causes for changing conditions, detect
representatives of indigenous peoples of the
emerging problems, and recommend actions
north as active participants in the process.
required to reduce risks to Arctic ecosystems.

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From its inception, AMAP was conceived
tion in the Arctic. At the Nuuk ministerial con-
2
as a process integrating both monitoring and
ference in 1993, acidification was given priority
Introduction
assessment activities. During its first period
status on a subregional basis for Fennoscandia.
(1991-1996), AMAP has designed and imple-
Global climate change and stratospheric ozone
mented a coordinated program to monitor lev-
layer depletion are addressed by other interna-
els of pollutants in all compartments of the
tional programs, and at Nuuk AMAP was asked
Arctic environment ­ the atmospheric, terres-
to assess whether the coverage of Arctic areas
trial, freshwater, and marine environments ­
was sufficient within these programs.
and in human populations with respect to
human health.
Structure
AMAP has also instituted an assessment
process to produce assessment reports based
The work of AMAP is implemented by the
on data already published in scientific litera-
AMAP Working Group, which includes the
ture, data obtained from AMAP's monitoring
following members:
program, and traditional knowledge.
· Representatives from the eight Arctic coun-
The initial work of AMAP focuses on three
tries: Canada, Denmark/Greenland, Finland,
priority pollutants: persistent organic pollu-
Iceland, Norway, Russia, Sweden, and the
tants, heavy metals, and radioactivity. AMAP
United States;
was also requested to monitor hydrocarbons
· Representatives from indigenous peoples
to achieve better documentation of oil pollu-
organizations: Saami Council, Inuit Circum-
polar Conference (ICC), and the Association
International agreements relevant to the Arctic
of Indigenous Peoples of the North, Siberia,
Pollution issues are covered by several international agreements that are important in
and the Far East of the Russian Federation
political efforts to reduce damage to Arctic ecosystems. Those that have particular rel-
(AIPON).
evance to this assessment are:
To facilitate and harmonize AMAP's work
Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution (LRTAP): The purpose of
with other actors in the Arctic, the following
the UN Economic Commission for Europe's LRTAP Convention is to prevent, reduce,
countries and organizations participate as
and control transboundary air pollution from both existing and new sources. This
observers in the Working Group:
regional, binding agreement and the five related protocols represent the most appro-
priate instrument for addressing relevant components of the Arctic pollution problem.
· Observing countries: Germany, Netherlands,
Current negotiations in LRTAP include efforts to conclude a new protocol on photo-
Poland, United Kingdom;
chemical pollution, acidification, and eutrophication, and to prepare new protocols on
· Observing and Cooperating International
heavy metals and persistent organic pollutants.
Organizations: Advisory Committee on Pro-
Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the North East Atlantic,
tection of the Sea (ACOPS), European Envi-
1992 (OSPAR): OSPAR was developed under the Oslo and Paris Commissions to
update two existing Conventions (the 1974 Paris Convention for the Prevention of
ronment Agency (EEA), International Arctic
Marine Pollution from Land-based Sources, and the 1972 Oslo Convention for the
Science Committee (IASC), International
Prevention of Marine Pollution from Ships and Aircraft). The 1992 OSPAR
Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), International
Convention is currently one of the most applicable international agreements for
Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES),
addressing Arctic marine pollution from various sources.
International Union for Circumpolar Health
The International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships, 1973, as mod-
(IUCH), Nordic Council of Parliamentarians
ified by the Protocol of 1978 (MARPOL 73/78): This convention is a combination of
(NCP), Northern Forum, OECD Nuclear En-
two treaties adopted in 1973 and 1978. It covers all the technical aspects of pollution
from ships, except the disposal of waste into the sea by dumping, and applies to ships
ergy Agency (OECD/NEA), Oslo and Paris
of all types. It has five annexes covering oil, chemicals, sewage, garbage, and harmful
Commissions (OSPARCOM), United Nations
substances carried in packages, portable tanks, freight containers, etc.
Economic Commission for Europe (UN ECE),
Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other
United Nations Environment Programme
Matter - London Dumping Convention: The London Dumping Convention is the pri-
(UNEP), World Meteorological Organiza-
mary international agreement regulating ocean dumping of wastes. It has direct signif-
tion (WMO), World Wide Fund for Nature
icance for several aspects of environmental protection of the Arctic, particularly in
(WWF);
relation to radioactive waste disposal issues. All eight Arctic countries are Contracting
Parties and have signed a recent comprehensive revision and restructuring of this
· AEPS Organizations: Conservation of Arctic
Convention.
Flora and Fauna (CAFF), Protection of the
Arctic Marine Environment (PAME), Emer-
Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer and the Montreal Protocol
on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer: The Vienna Convention of 1985 identi-
gency Prevention, Preparedness and Re-
fied the threat to ozone in the atmosphere and resulted in the adoption of the 1987
sponse (EPPR), Indigenous Peoples Secre-
Montreal Protocol, which limits the production of substances responsible for stratos-
tariat (IPS), Sustainable Development and
pheric ozone depletion. Compliance with the protocol including its amendments is the
Utilization (SDU).
primary mechanism for protecting stratospheric ozone.
AMAP also established an Assessment Steering
Climate Convention: Adopted at the Rio Conference in 1992, the United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change provides an international framework to
Group to coordinate all work associated with
discuss greenhouse gases, especially carbon dioxide. A ministerial declaration at a
the assessment of contaminants in the Arctic
meeting of parties to the convention in June 1996 includes instructions to negotiate
environment. The members are scientists
binding agreements to reduce emissions.
active in different fields of research, represen-
UNEP Global Programme of Action: The 19th session of the UNEP Governing
tatives of indigenous peoples organizations,
Council has decided to establish a negotiating committee before July 1, 1998 to pre-
and the AMAP Board (chair, vice-chair, and
pare a global, legally-binding agreement on at least 12 persistent organic pollutants,
executive secretary).
and to finish its work before 2000. This fulfills a ministerial agreement within UNEP's
Global Programme of Action for the Protection of the Marine Environment from
AMAP is supported by a permanent Secre-
Land-based Activities.
tariat located in Oslo, Norway.

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AMAP's assessment process
recommendations for political actions to reduce
3
or limit further contamination of the Arctic.
Introduction
This assessment of contaminants in the Arctic
More information on each of the subjects is
regions has not been designed as an assessment
found in the different chapters in the body of
of environmental impact, nor is it intended to
this report.
be a formal risk assessment for human and
The Introduction (this chapter), describes the
environmental health for the purposes of
political background for the reports and the
developing risk management policies. Rather,
assessment process, and chapters 2 to 5 form a
the aim of the assessment is to provide a base-
background for the discussion of specific cont-
line for understanding the status of contami-
aminants.
nants in the Arctic: it provides the fundamen-
tal information needed to structure and con-
The Arctic describes the geography of the area
duct formal risk assessments related to human
covered in AMAP's assessment and some fea-
health and ecosystem damage in future work.
tures of the Arctic environment.
Physical pathways of contaminants transport
focuses on the movement of contaminants
The assessment reports
with air masses, ocean currents, and water-
ways, specifically addressing the Arctic as a
The assessment is presented in two reports.
recipient of contaminants from other areas.
The scientific documentation, including data
and references, is available in The AMAP
Polar ecology discusses adaptations of Arctic
Assessment Report: Arctic Pollution Issues,
plants and animals to the polar environment
which has been prepared by drafting groups
that make them especially susceptible to the
with key scientific expertise under the respon-
effects of contaminants. It also describes bio-
sibility of one or more lead countries. The
logical pathways and food webs in terrestrial,
work has been supported by a large number
freshwater, and marine ecosystems.
of additional experts. Representatives of
Peoples of the North gives an introduction to
indigenous peoples organizations have active-
Arctic lifestyles with a focus on indigenous po-
ly participated in the assessment, especially in
pulations. Special emphasis is placed on the
those chapters that concern human popula-
role of traditional foods in a cultural context.
tions and human health. The authors of the
respective chapters are responsible for the
The following four chapters, Persistent organic
content and conclusions in their chapters of
pollutants, Heavy metals, Radioactivity, and
The AMAP Assessment Report: Arctic Pollu-
Acidification and Arctic haze, contain synthe-
tion Issues.
ses of the circumpolar assessment of priority
The second report, Arctic Pollution Issues:
pollutants, describing their toxicology, levels,
A State of the Arctic Environment Report, is a
trends, and effects on Arctic plants and animals.
summary and synthesis of The AMAP Assess-
Petroleum hydrocarbons describes the actual
ment Report: Arctic Pollution Issues, written
and potential effects of oil exploitation in the
by a science journalist for a general audience
Arctic. This chapter also includes a discussion
interested in the implications of contaminants
of levels and trends of polycyclic aromatic
in the Arctic environment. While the Assess-
hydrocarbons (PAHs).
ment Steering Group, with the assistance of
many experts, has provided information and
Two global environmental issues and their
feedback for this second report, the responsi-
potential effects on the Arctic environment are
bility for its final content, including the Exe-
covered in the chapter Climate change, ozone
cutive Summary, rests with the AMAP Work-
depletion, and ultraviolet radiation.
ing Group.
Pollution and human health assesses the im-
The structures of the two reports are simi-
pact that the contaminants described in the
lar, and readers of this book interested in more
other chapters have on human well-being and
details about particular topics are referred to
provides a context of communication and cul-
the corresponding chapters of The AMAP
ture that is essential in the continued discus-
Assessment Report: Arctic Pollution Issues.
sion of Arctic pollution issues. It also presents
the first results of AMAP's human health mon-
itoring program.
Reader's guide
The report also contains a circumpolar map
The AMAP Working Group has summarized
(inside front cover).
the information from AMAP's assessment of
pollution in the Arctic in the Executive Sum-
mary, which appears at the beginning of this
report. The Executive Summary also highlights
the actions that need to be taken to follow up
on the assessment, including scientific research
priorities for continued assessment work and

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