Global International
Waters Assessment
Regional assessments
Other reports in this series:
Russian Arctic GIWA Regional assessment 1a
Caribbean Sea/Small Islands GIWA Regional assessment 3a
Caribbean Islands GIWA Regional assessment 4
Barents Sea GIWA Regional assessment 11
Baltic Sea GIWA Regional assessment 17
Caspian Sea GIWA Regional assessment 23
Aral Sea GIWA Regional assessment 24
Gulf of California/Colorado River Basin GIWA Regional assessment 27
Sea of Okhotsk GIWA Regional assessment 30
Oyashio Current GIWA Regional assessment 31
Yellow Sea GIWA Regional assessment 34
East China Sea GIWA Regional assessment 36
Patagonian Shelf GIWA Regional assessment 38
Brazil Current GIWA Regional assessment 39
Amazon Basin GIWA Regional assessment 40b
Canary Current GIWA Regional assessment 41
Guinea Current GIWA Regional assessment 42
Lake Chad Basin GIWA Regional assessment 43
Benguela Current GIWA Regional assessment 44
Indian Ocean Islands GIWA Regional assessment 45b
East African Rift Valley Lakes GIWA Regional assessment 47
South China Sea GIWA Regional assessment 54
Mekong River GIWA Regional assessment 55
Sulu-Celebes (Sulawesi) Sea GIWA Regional assessment 56
Indonesian Seas GIWA Regional assessment 57
Pacifi c Islands GIWA Regional assessment 62
Humboldt Current GIWA Regional assessment 64
Eastern Equatorial Pacifi c GIWA Regional assessment 65
Global International Waters
Assessment
Regional assessment 3b, 3c
Caribbean Sea/Colombia & Venezuela,
Caribbean Sea/Central America & Mexico
GIWA report production
Series editor: Ulla Li Zweifel
Editorial assistance: Matthew Fortnam
Maps & GIS: Niklas Holmgren
Design & graphics: Joakim Palmqvist
Global International Waters Assessment
Caribbean Sea/Colombia & Venezuela, Caribbean Sea/Central
America & Mexico, GIWA Regional assessment 3b, 3c
Published by the University of Kalmar on behalf of
United Nations Environment Programme
© 2006 United Nations Environment Programme
ISSN 1651-940X
University of Kalmar
SE-391 82 Kalmar
Sweden
United Nations Environment Programme
PO Box 30552,
Nairobi, Kenya
This publication may be reproduced in whole or in part and
in any form for educational or non-profi t purposes without
special permission from the copyright holder, provided
acknowledgement of the source is made. No use of this
publication may be made for resale or for any other commercial
purpose whatsoever without prior permission in writing from the
United Nations Environment Programme.
CITATIONS
When citing this report, please use:
UNEP, 2006. Isaza, C.F.A., Sierra-Correa, P.C., Bernal-Velasquez,
M., Londoño, L.M. and W. Troncoso. Caribbean Sea/Colombia
& Venezuela, Caribbean Sea/Central America & Mexico, GIWA
Regional assessment 3b, 3c. University of Kalmar, Kalmar, Sweden.
DISCLAIMER
The views expressed in this publication are those of the authors
and do not necessarily refl ect those of UNEP. The designations
employed and the presentations do not imply the expressions
of any opinion whatsoever on the part of UNEP or cooperating
agencies concerning the legal status of any country, territory,
city or areas or its authority, or concerning the delimitation of its
frontiers or boundaries.
This publication has been peer-reviewed and the information
herein is believed to be reliable, but the publisher does not
warrant its completeness or accuracy.
Publishing house: Kirjastusaktsiaselts MATS, Tallinn
Printed in Estonia by Tallinna Raamatutrükikoda, 2006
Contents
Executive summary
9
Regional Defi nition
9
Assessment and Causal chain analysis of the Colombia & Venezuela sub-system (3b)
10
Assessment and Causal chain analysis of the Central America & Mexico sub-system (3c)
11
Policy options
11
Abbreviations and acronyms
12
Regional defi nition
14
Boundaries of the Caribbean Sea region
14
Physical characteristics
15
Socio-economic characteristics
17
The transboundary basins of the Caribbean Sea region
21
Assessment 27
Assessment of the Colombia & Venezuela sub-system
28
Freshwater shortage
28
Pollution
29
Habitat and community modifi cation
32
Unsustainable exploitation of fi sh and other living resources
34
Global change
36
Assessment of the Central America & Mexico sub-system
38
Freshwater shortage
38
Pollution
39
Habitat and community modifi cation
42
Unsustainable exploitation of fi sh and other living resources
45
Global change
46
Priority concerns for further analysis
48
Causal chain analysis
50
Causal chain analysis of the Magdalena Basin
50
Causal Chain Analysis of the Central America & Mexico sub-system
53
Policy options
55
Policy options for the Colombia & Venezuela sub-system
55
Defi nition of problem
55
CONTENTS
Policy options for theCentral America & Mexico sub-system (3c)
59
Policy Options Analysis
59
Recommended policy options
59
Conclusions and recommendations
62
Colombia & Venezuela sub-system
62
Central America & Mexico sub-system
62
References 64
Annexes 70
Annex I List of contributing authors and organisations
70
Annex II Detailed scoring tables Colombia-Venezuela sub-system (3b)
72
Annex II Detailed scoring tables Central America & Mexico sub-system (3c)
75
Annex III Protocols of the Cartagena Convention
78
The Global International Waters Assessment
i
The GIWA methodology
vii
Executive summary
Regional Definition
ocean currents. The rivers discharging to the Caribbean Sea from the
Central America & Mexico sub-system are small by comparison, though
The GIWA Caribbean Sea region is part of the Wider Caribbean and
some of them, such as the San Juan River at the borders of Nicaragua
includes all or parts of 28 island and mainland states Antigua &
and Costa Rica, are transboundary systems.
Barbuda, Anguilla, Aruba, Belize, Bonaire, Barbados, British Virgin Islands,
Cayman Islands, Costa Rica, Curaçao, Colombia, Dominica, Grenada,
The Colombia & Venezuela (3b) and Central America & Mexico (3c) sub-
Guatemala, Guadeloupe, Honduras, Martinique, Mexico (Quintana Roo
systems are characterized by a wide variety of terrestrial and marine
state), Montserrat, Nicaragua, Panama, Saint Vincent & the Grenadines,
ecosystems with rich biodiversity. In the Colombia & Venezuela sub-
Saint Kitts & Nevis, Saint Lucia, Trinidad & Tobago, Turks & Caicos, United
system, most of the marine ecosystems of the tropical Western Atlantic
States Virgin Islands and Venezuela. For the GIWA assessment, the region
are represented, including coral reefs, seagrass beds and mangroves.
was divided into three sub-systems: the Small Islands (3a); Colombia &
The Central America & Mexico sub-system has the second largest
Venezuela (3b); and Central America & Mexico (3c). This report presents
coral barrier reef in the world, extending along Belize's coast, as well
the results of the assessment of sub-systems 3b and 3c.
as coastal wetlands subject to regional conservation initiatives. Its
terrestrial biodiversity represents the confl uence of fl ora and fauna from
The Caribbean Sea is a semi-enclosed ocean basin bounded by the
two biogeographical regions, the Nearctic of North America and the
Lesser Antilles to the east and southeast, the Greater Antilles (Cuba,
Neotropical of South and Central America, including the Caribbean.
Hispaniola and Puerto Rico) to the north, and by Central America &
Mexico to the west and southwest. Water fl ows from the Atlantic Ocean
Of the two sub-systems assessed, Colombia & Venezuela has the higher
into the Caribbean Sea mostly through the Grenada, Saint Vincent, and
population (60.4 million), with 62% of this in Colombia. The urban
Saint Lucia passages in the southeast, continuing westward as the
population index is the highest in the Caribbean Sea region, with 75%
Caribbean Current the main surface water circulation in the Caribbean
and 87% living in urban areas in Colombia and Venezuela respectively.
Sea then out into the Gulf of Mexico via the Yucatan Channel between
The inhabitants of Colombia are classifi ed as having medium-low
Mexico and Cuba.
incomes and those of Venezuela, medium-high incomes. The total
population of the Central America & Mexico sub-system is about
The principal river discharge to the Caribbean Sea is from the Magdalena
9.9 million inhabitants, of which 53% are from Honduras, 17% from
River, which drains an extensive basin between the Eastern and Central
Guatemala, 14% from Nicaragua, 5% from Quintana Roo (Mexico), 4%
Cordilleras. While the Magdalena River Basin is entirely within Colombia,
from Costa Rica, 4% from Panama and 1% from Belize. Except for Costa
its river outfl ow aff ects a wide sweep of southern Caribbean coastal
Rica, the infant mortality rates of the countries of the Central America
waters. The Orinoco River, a major river whose basin is shared between
& Mexico sub-system are higher than the rest of the region with an
Colombia and Venezuela, was also included in this assessment.
average rate of 33 per 1000 live births. The sub-system had an average
Although it discharges mainly to the Atlantic Ocean from a delta at the
per capita income of approximately 2 600 USD (current value) in 2001.
very margin of the Caribbean Sea region, its outfl ow has a signifi cant
impact on southern Caribbean coastal waters because of the prevailing
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
9
The regional environmental legislative regime comprises diff erent inter-
Agro-chemicals used in crop production are used inappropriately and
national conventions that are related to marine and coastal resources
enter aquatic systems via runoff or leaching into groundwater. Mining
management. The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) has
activities have degraded forest, soil and water resources; commonly, the
played a leading role in the establishment of a number of conventions,
practices employed are non-compliant with environmental guidelines
action plans and protocols including the Caribbean Action Plan and
and highly destructive, and have adversely aff ected the environmental
the Convention for the Protection and Development of the Marine En-
quality of aquatic habitats. Petroleum activities in the upstream areas of
vironment in the Wider Caribbean Region the Cartagena Convention
the basin are altering habitats by consuming large quantities of water
and its protocols.
and releasing pollutants, discharged by petroleum-water separating
stations, as well as occasional spills and leakages from oil pipelines.
Organic material in domestic and industrial wastewater degrades water
quality and consequently the health of aquatic ecosystems.
Assessment and Causal chain
analysis of the Colombia &
The root causes of habitat and community modifi cation in the
Venezuela sub-system (3b)
Magdalena River Basin included:
Demographic: Approximately 80% of the population of Colombia
and the majority of its economic activities are concentrated in
In the Colombia & Venezuela sub-system, freshwater shortage has
the Magdalena River Basin which is, therefore, subjected to a
slight impacts, although the pollution of existing supplies is having
concentration of pollution.
severe impacts. The environmental impacts of pollution are considered
Governance: In general, there is an absence of an integrated
to be moderate, with oil spills and suspended solids assessed as the
development strategy and planning is sectorial. The planning
severest issues. Pollution is adversely aff ecting the health of the sub-
process incorporates neither environmental impact assessments
system's population and has increased the costs of water treatment.
nor mitigation measures. The monitoring capacity of the
The environmental impacts of habitat and community modifi cation
institutions responsible for environmental management in the
are severe and the economic impacts are moderate, particularly as they
basin is inadequate as there is a lack of professional expertise and
aff ect the fi shing industry. The unsustainable exploitation of fi sh and
fi nancial resources.
other living resources has moderate environmental impacts, with the
conomic: Poverty has forced the inhabitants of the region to
severest issues being overexploitation, destructive fi shing practices
employ unsustainable practices to exploit natural resources for
and the impact on genetic and biological diversity, particularly in
their short-term survival, using shorter crop-rotation cycles, clearing
Colombia. The reduction in catches has impacted the fi shing industry
forests for agriculture and pastures, and overgrazing livestock.
and aff ected health due to a reduction in food security. Global changes
Farmers were encouraged to apply agro-chemicals in order to
have caused changes in the hydrological cycle and ocean circulation
increase productivity. The high price for illegal crops encourages
resulting in moderate impacts. The climate change induced socio-
further deforestation to create more cultivated areas. There are
economic impacts were assessed as severe. In future the impacts of
insuffi
cient fi nancial and technological resources to develop
freshwater shortage, pollution and the unsustainable exploitation of
adequate treatment systems or to use cleaner technologies.
fi sh and other living resources are expected to diminish in severity due
Knowledge: There are a lack of studies evaluating the effi
ciency
to the implementation of measures aimed at mitigating these concerns.
and environmental impacts of current practices. There is a dearth
However, the impacts of habitat modifi cation and global change are
of environmental information about the Magdalena River Basin and
expected to increase in severity.
the Colombian Caribbean coast.
In the Colombia & Venezuela sub-system, habitat and community
modifi cation was identifi ed as the priority concern. The Causal
chain analysis focused on the Magdalena River Basin because of
its concentration of human activities which are resulting in severe
ecosystem degradation. The immediate causes of habitat modifi cation
are the large quantities of sediment and chemicals in the river's
discharge; attributed mainly to the mining and agricultural sectors.
10
GIWA REGIONAL ASSESSMENT 3B, 3C CARIBBEAN SEA/COLOMBIA & VENEZUELA, CARIBBEAN SEA/CENTRAL AMERICA & MEXICO
Assessment and Causal chain
and political interests often take precedence over social and
analysis of the Central America
environmental improvements. The institutions responsible for
& Mexico sub-system (3c)
environmental management have insuffi
cient fi nancial and
technical resources. Commercial fi sh stocks have declined due to
illegal fi shing, the weak enforcement of fi sheries regulations and
The assessment of the Central America & Mexico sub-system showed
the lack of transboundary fi sheries management.
that freshwater shortage has moderate impacts, with the modifi cation of
Legal: Regulations on the use of pesticides and fertilizers are very
stream fl ow and the pollution of existing supplies assessed as the most
weak or non-existent. The main defi ciency in water law concerns
severe issues. The environmental impacts of pollution are severe, and
coastal and marine regulations.
chemical pollution was identifi ed as having the greatest impact. Most
economic sectors are severely impacted by the pollution concern. The
Knowledge: Decision-making processes are hampered by limited
environmental and economic impacts of habitat modifi cation are severe,
information on environmental and economic characteristics
while the health impacts are slight. The unsustainable exploitation of fi sh
(including aquatic ecosystem values), and environmental
and other living resources has a moderate environmental impact, due
degradation trends, of river basins and aquifers. There are
mainly to overexploitation and the use of destructive fi shing practices.
insuffi
cient research initiatives regarding sustainable technologies
The principal global change issues were changes in the hydrological
and few environmental education programmes.
cycle and ocean circulation, and sea-level rise, which infl ict slight to
moderate impacts. The socio-economic impacts are moderate to severe,
taking into account the consequences of natural phenomena such as
El Niño. In future, habitat modifi cation may become less severe, but the
Policy options
severity of the other concerns is likely to increase.
Feasible policy options were identifi ed that target key components
The immediate causes of habitat and community modifi cation in the
identifi ed in the Causal chain analysis in order to minimise future
Central America & Mexico sub-system were identifi ed as deforestation
impacts on the transboundary aquatic environment.
and increased erosion. Inappropriate agricultural practices have
increased erosion and reduced the productivity of soils. The expansion
Recommended policy options for the Colombia & Venezuela sub-
of agriculture has required the deforestation of large areas of land,
system (3b):
resulting in habitat loss and fragmentation. Some habitat modifi cation,
Integrated River Basin and Coastal Area Management
for example, from illegal clearance and slash and burn agriculture, can
(policy option 1)
be controlled through more stringent regulations and by strengthening
Strengthen the scientifi c capacity of the sub-system
the institutions responsible for environmental management.
(policy option 2)
The root causes of habitat and community modifi cation in the Central
Recommended policy options for the Central America and Mexico
America & Mexico sub-system included:
sub-system (3c):
Demographic: With population growth, the demand for land
Institutional strengthening (policy option 3)
escalates and environmental degradation intensifi es as urban
Promote sustainable production (policy option 4)
and agricultural areas expand. Land tenancy confl icts have been
provoked mainly in zones of collective land use. The institutions
responsible for land tenure have insuffi
cient capacity to resolve
these confl icts.
Governance: There is a lack of regional policies which promote
the development of river basin, coastal and marine planning and
management. Surface water management plans at national or
regional levels are inadequate. A lack of democratic participation
mechanisms has hindered cooperation between governments
and the community in the conservation of habitats. Economic
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
11
Abbreviations and acronyms
BOD
Biochemical Oxygen Demand
INEGI
Instituto Nacional de Estadística Geografía e In-
CATHALAC
Centro del Agua del Trópico Humedo para America
formática
Latina y el Caribe (Water Center for the Humid Tropics
IPCC
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
of Latin America and the Caribbean; Panama)
IUCN
The World Conservation Union
CCA Causal
Chain
Analysis
LME
Large Marine Ecosystem
CIA
Central Intelligence Agency
NOAA
National Oceanic & Atmospheric Administration
CIRA/UNAN
Centro de investigación para los recursos acuáticos,
PCA Panama
Canal
Authority
Universidad nacional autónoma de Nicaragua
PNUD
Programa de las Naciones Unidas para el Desarrollo
CONPES
The National Council of Economic and Social Policy
(UNDP)
DDT Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane
POA Policy
Option
Analysis
EEZ Exclusive
Economic
Zone
RAMSAR
The Ramsar Convention on Wetlands
ENSO
El Niño Southern Oscilation
SIMAC
Sistema de Monitoreo de Arrecifes Coralinos de Colom-
GDP Gross
Domestic
Product
bia
GEF Global
Envionment
Facility
UNCLOS
United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea
GIWA
Global International Waters Assessment
UNEP
United Nations Environment Programme
GNI Gross
National
Income
USD US
Dollar
HCB Hexachlorobenzene
WWF World
Wildlife
Fund
IMO International
Maritime
Organization
12
List of figures
Figure 1
Boundaries of the Caribbean Sea region. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Figure 2
Superficial water circulation of the Caribbean Sea during summer (A) and winter (B). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Figure 3
Population density distribution of Caribbean Sea region. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Figure 4
Land cover in the Caribbean Sea region. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Figure 5
International protected areas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Figure 6
Transboundary river basins of the Caribbean Sea region. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Figure 7
Status of coral reefs in the Caribbean Sea region. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Figure 8
Prochilodus magdalenae ("Bocachico") catches (1970 2000). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Figure 9
Causal chain diagram illustrating the causal links for habitat and community modification in the Magdalena Basin (sub-system 3b). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Figure 10
Causal chain diagram illustrating the causal links for habitat and community modification in the Central America & Mexico sub-system (3c). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
List of tables
Table 1
Estimations of sediment discharge into the Caribbean Sea. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Table 2
Population in the Caribbean Sea region.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Table 3
Transboundary basins in Caribbean Sea region. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Table 4
GIWA scoring table for the Colombia & Venezuela sub-system and the Central America & Mexico sub-system. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Table 5
Principal anthropogenic threats to coral reef biodiversity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Table 6
Landings of conch, lobster and fish in Central American countries. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Table 7
Performance of policy options for the Colombia & Venezuela sub-system. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Table 8
Performance of policy options for the Central America & Mexico sub-system. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS
13
Regional defi nition
This section describes the boundaries and the main physical and
Boundaries of the Caribbean
socio-economic characteristics of the region in order to defi ne the
Sea region
area considered in the regional GIWA Assessment and to provide
suffi
cient background information to establish the context within
GIWA Caribbean Sea region is part of the Wider Caribbean and includes
which the assessment was conducted.
all or parts of 28 island and mainland states, Antigua & Barbuda, Anguilla,
Aruba, Belize, Bonaire, Barbados, British Virgin Islands, Cayman Islands,
Costa Rica, Curaçao, Colombia, Dominica, Grenada, Guatemala, Guad-
Turks & Caicos
3a.
3a. Small Islands
Mexico
Anguilla
Cayman Islands
British Virgin Islands
Belize
US Virgin Islands
3c. Central America/Mexico
Antigua & Barbuda
Guadeloupe
Guatemala
Honduras
Martinique
St. Lucia
3a.
Barbados
Nicaragua
Aruba
Grenada
Netherlands Antilles
Trinidad &
3b. Colombia/Venezuela
Elevation/
Costa Rica
Tobago
depth (m)
4 000
Panama
2 000
1 000
Venezuela
500
100
0
Colombia
-50
-200
-1 000
-2 000
0
500 Kilometres
© GIWA 2006
Figure 1
Boundaries of the Caribbean Sea region.
14
GIWA REGIONAL ASSESSMENT 3B, 3C CARIBBEAN SEA/COLOMBIA & VENEZUELA, CARIBBEAN SEA/CENTRAL AMERICA & MEXICO
eloupe, Honduras, Martinique, Mexico (Quintana Roo state), Montser-
Physical characteristics
rat, Nicaragua, Panama, Saint Vincent & the Grenadines, Saint Kitts &
Nevis, Saint Lucia, Trinidad & Tobago, Turks & Caicos, United States Vir-
The Caribbean Sea
gin Islands and Venezuela (Figure 1). The GIWA Caribbean Sea regional
The Caribbean Sea is a semi-enclosed ocean basin bounded by the
borders are based on the limits of the Caribbean Sea Large Marine
Lesser Antilles to the east and southeast, the Greater Antilles (Cuba,
Ecosystem (LME) with some exceptions. This LME is divided into GIWA
Hispaniola, and Puerto Rico) to the north, and by Central America to
Caribbean Sea (Region 3) and Caribbean Islands (Region 4), with the
the west and southwest. It is located within the tropics and covers
border delineated by the 200nautical mile Exclusive Economic Zone
1 943 000 km2. The Wider Caribbean, which includes the Gulf of
(EEZ) of the countries in the Caribbean Islands region (Bahamas, Cuba,
Mexico, the Caribbean Sea and adjacent parts of the Atlantic Ocean
Dominican Republic, Haiti, Jamaica and Puerto Rico).
encompasses an area of 2 515 900 km2 (Bjorn 1997, Sheppard 2000,
IUCN 2003).
The sheer number of countries and their diverse socio-economic and
ecological characteristics led to the division of the Caribbean Sea region
The Caribbean Sea region was formed during the Jurassic period. With
into three sub-systems: Sub-system 3a, the Small Islands; Sub-system 3b,
the division of the mega-continent Pangaea 180 million years ago, came
Colombia & Venezuela; and Sub-system 3c, Central America & Mexico
the separation of the lands that would become North and South Amer-
(Quintana Roo state) (Figure 1).
ica. As well as the subduction of the Cocos and Nazca plates, the con-
tinuous collision of continental plates produced continental and sub-
Sub-system 3a includes Antigua & Barbuda, Anguilla, Aruba,
marine mountain ranges including the rise of Central America, which
Barbados, Bonaire, British Virgin Islands, Cayman Islands, Curaçao,
formed a biogeographical bridge, allowing the migration of fl oral and
Dominica, Grenada, Guadeloupe, Martinique, Montserrat, Saint
faunal species between North and South America an important factor
Kitts & Nevis, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent & the Grenadines, Trinidad
in the high biodiversity in the region (Windevoxhel 2003).
& Tobago, Turks & Caicos, and United States Virgin Islands.
Sub-system 3b comprises parts of Colombia & Venezuela.
The Caribbean Sea averages 2 200 m, with the deepest part, known
Sub-system 3c includes Belize, Mexico (Quintana Roo State) and
as the Cayman trench, plunging to 7 100 m. The drainage basin of the
parts of Costa Rica, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua and Panama.
Wider Caribbean covers 7.5 million km2 and encompasses eight major
river systems, from the Mississippi to the Orinoco (Hinrichsen 1998).
This report assesses the transboundary issues of the sub-systems 3b
and 3c.
The Caribbean Current transports water northwestwards through the
Caribbean Sea and into the Gulf of Mexico, via the Yucatan Channel
(Figure 2). The source of the Caribbean Current is the equatorial Atlan-
tic Ocean via the North Equatorial, North Brazil, and Guyana currents.
Summer
Winter
© GIWA 2006
Figure 2
Superfi cial water circulation of the Caribbean Sea during summer (A) and winter (B).
(Source: NIMA 2000)
REGIONAL DEFINITION
15
Water fl ows into the Caribbean Sea mostly through the Grenada, Saint
stone, igneous rock and eolianite or beach rock. In addition there are
Vincent, and Saint Lucia passages in the southeast continuing westward
unconsolidated deposits such as beaches, alluvial fans, alluvial plains
as the Caribbean Current the main surface circulation in the Caribbean
and dunes (Sheppard 2000).
Sea (Wust 1964, Gordon 1967, Roemich 1981, Hernandez-Guerra & Joyce
2000, in Gyory et al. 2004).
Colombia & Venezuela (3b)
In the Colombian and Venezuelan Caribbean most of the marine
The strongest fl ow in the Caribbean Sea is found in the southern third
environments and ecosystems of the tropical Western Atlantic are
of the Sea and belongs to the Caribbean Current (Gordon 1967, Kinder
represented. The principal aquatic ecosystems of the sub-system are
1983, in Gyory et al. 2004). In this area, surface velocities can reach 0.7
coral reefs, sea-grass beds, beaches, rock reefs and cliff s, mangrove
m/s along the coasts of Venezuela and the Netherlands Antilles (Fratan-
and coastal lagoons, and estuaries. Coral reefs are scattered over the
toni 2001 in Gyory et al. 2004). There are also strong (0.6 m/s) currents
Colombian continental platform, forming atolls and wide chasms in the
along the Panama and Colombian coasts, but there is little fl ow over the
San Andres and Providencia archipelago. Along the continental coast,
Central American Rise, since most of the northwestward fl ow is chan-
there are small fringing and patch reefs, but around the Rosario and San
nelled to the southwest of Jamaica. The fl ow turns sharply westward as
Bernardo archipelagoes and around Isla Fuerte there are extensive coral
it crosses the Cayman Basin and enters the Gulf of Mexico as a narrow
reefs (Diaz et al. 2000, Penchaszadeh et al. 2000).
boundary current, called the Yucatan Current, which hugs the Yucatan
Peninsula (Fratantoni 2001 in Gyory et al. 2004). This current fl ows into
The Colombian coral reefs have a low density of economically
the Gulf of Mexico through the Yucatan Channel.
valuable marine species. For example, according to a survey in 2000
and 2001, lobsters (Panulirus spp.) are sporadic, and crabs (Mithrax
The winds in the Caribbean Sea region generate a circulation cell where
spinosissimus) and octopuses (Octopus spp.) were only observed in
deep waters upwell along the north coast of South America and sur-
limited abundance at Islas del Rosario. Gastropods (Strombus gigas)
face waters (enriched by upwelling and by discharges from the Orinoco
have a wider distribution, but still with a low density. The most
River) are advected northwards into the region, especially during the
abundant and ecologically important species were sea urchins,
rainy season. In agreement with Sheppard (2000), satellite images in the
principally Echinometra, but also Diadema antillarum. Reef fi shes
visible spectrum clearly show the meridianal spreading of green water
(Scaridae, Acanthuridae, Haemulidae) have shown an increasing trend
in the eastern Caribbean. Tidal currents are the dominant component
since 1998 (INVEMAR 2002). Mangrove forests are an essential habitat
of the off shore currents superimposed on the mean circulation. Tides
for important commercial and subsistence fi sh species such as Mugil
throughout the northeast Caribbean Sea exhibit a complex behaviour.
incilis, Centropomus undecimalis, Callinectes sapidus, Macrobrachium sp.,
Caribbean waters are well stratifi ed, with water at diff erent depths mov-
Polymesoda solida (INVEMAR 2003a). The mangrove trees are also used
ing in diff erent directions. The structure and composition of the Carib-
for construction, and forests near to the cities at the Magdalena and
bean's surface water follows a well-defi ned seasonal pattern (Sheppard
Orinoco river mouths are particularly vulnerable to deforestation.
2000). An estimate of sediment discharge into the Wider Caribbean
region is presented in Table 1.
The river basins of Colombia & Venezuela (Magdalena, Orinoco and
Catatumbo rivers) have a signifi cant infl uence on the Caribbean Sea
Table 1
Estimations of sediment discharge into the Caribbean Sea.
(Fandiño 1996, Steer et al. 1997, Penchaszadeh et al. 2000, Sierra-Correa
Region/River
Sediments charge (106 t/y)
2001, INVEMAR 2003a).
Rivers that flow into the Gulf of Mexico
121
Rivers form Central America and the Antilles
300
The defi nition of the extent of the Colombian coastal zone depends on
Magdalena River
235
the characteristics and particularities of the Coastal Environmental Units
Orinoco River
85
(Unidades Ambientales Costeras, UAC) and the Integrated Management
Other rivers from Colombia and Venezuela
50
Units defi ned in the National Environmental Policy for the Sustainable
(Source: PAC-PNUMA, 1994)
Development of Oceanic Spaces and Coastal Zones and Islands of
Colombia (Política Nacional Ambiental para el Desarrollo Sostenible de
In the Caribbean Sea region, mangrove, sea-grasses and coral reefs are
los Espacios Oceánicos y las Zonas Costeras e Insulares de Colombia,
closely associated; they exist in a dynamic equilibrium infl uenced by
PNAOCI).
coastal activities. Three main rock types dominate the coastline; lime-
16
GIWA REGIONAL ASSESSMENT 3B, 3C CARIBBEAN SEA/COLOMBIA & VENEZUELA, CARIBBEAN SEA/CENTRAL AMERICA & MEXICO
Central America & Mexico (3c)
Table 2
Population in the Caribbean Sea region.
The Central American States and Mexico's Quintana Roo state are
Countries sub-system 3a
Population
characterized by diverse environmental features, including low-lying
Antigua and Barbuda*
68 490
Barbados*
268 200
terrain, rocks with high permeability (in Mexico), barrier reefs and
Dominica*
71 870
coastal wetlands (Gobierno de Quintana Roo 2002).
Grenada*
100 400
St. Kitts and Nevis*
45 050
St. Lucia*
156 700
Their biodiversity represents the confl uence of fl ora and fauna from
St. Vincent and the Grenadines*
115 900
two biogeographical regions, the Nearctic of North America and the
Trinidad and Tobago*
1 300 000
Neotropical of South and Central America, including the Caribbean. The
Virgin Islands (U.S.)*
109 300
Caribbean lowlands support subtropical wet forests and rain forests. In
Anguilla**
11 567
Aruba*
68 724
the south, broad-leaved mountain hardwood forests occupy steep and
British Vigin Islands***
21 000
cloud-shrouded slopes.
Cayman Islands****
35 527
Guadeloupe****
431 170
Martinica****
418 454
Sub-system 3c has the second largest coral barrier reef in the world,
Monserrat****
7 574
extending for 250 km along Belize's coast and covering 22 800 km2
Netherland antilles (Bonaire and Curacao)****
212 226
(Kramer et al. 2000). It also contains Chetumal Bay, one of Central
Turks and Caicos****
18 122
America's largest lagoons, Nicaragua Lake, the Natural Park "la Amistad"
Total
3 460 274
Countries sub-system 3b
and the Panama Canal-Gatun Lake. Due to their biological importance,
Belize
247 100
these ecosystems are subject to regional conservation initiatives the
Costa Rica
396 239
Biological Mesoamerican Corridor and the Mesoamerican Reef. The
Guatemala
1 699 840
Honduras
5 289 250
natural resources of Costa Rica are protected by one of the more
Mexico
535 624
ambitious programmes of conservation in Central America: 13.7% (1997)
Nicaragua
1 359 330
of the total surface of the country are protected as parks or other natural
Panama
364 145
reserves, as opposed to 7.4% in Nicaragua and 9.9% in Honduras.
Total
9 891 528
Countries sub-system 3c
Colombia
37 208 800
In the coastal zone, the vegetation consists of diff erent species of
Venezuela, RB
23 188 400
Convolvulaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Fabaceae, Cyperaceae, Asteraceae,
Total
60 397 200
Poaceae, and Rubiaceae, as well as some herbs including Caryophllaceae
Total in the Caribbean Sea region
73 749 002
Source of information of population 2001: Landscan. 2003. GIWA - regions
and Scrophulariaceae. There are also many bird species such as Seiurus
* Source of information of population 2001: The World Bank Group - Data and Statistics.2003.
http://www.worldbank.org/data/countrydata/countrydata.html Date search: 27-02-04
noveboracensis, S. aurocopillus, S. motacilla, Stelgidopteryx serripenis found
** Source of information of population 2001:Anguilla Goverment 2002. Persons by Broad Age
in Sixaola Basin. Lizards, for example, Ameiba quadrilineata, Norops
Groups Censuses 1960,1974,1984, 1992 and 2001. http://www.gov.ai/statistics/census/Demograp
hy%20&%20Culture%20tables.htm Date search: 03-03-04
humilis and Gonatodes albogularis, are also present (Dávila 2000). There
***Source of information of population 2001: Government of British Virgin Islands. 2002. The De-
velopment Planning Unit. http://dpu.gov.vg/AboutOurCountry/People.htm Date search 27-02-04
are abundant nematodes, including Neotonchoides and Desmodora,
**** Source of information of population 2001: CIA - The World Factbook. 2001
recorded in Chetumal Bay (Herrera 1997).
Guadeloupe, Martinique, Montserrat, Netherlands Antilles and Turks,
and Caycos are not included) (table 2; The World Bank Group 2003, CIA
2001, Landscan 2001, and team work estimations). Taking into account
Socio-economic characteristics the population growth rate for each country in the Caribbean Sea re-
gion, it is expected that the number of inhabitants would be close to
The Caribbean Sea region
89.2 million in 2020 (data for Aruba, Cayman Islands, Guadeloupe, Mar-
In 2001, the population of the Caribbean Sea region was around 74 mil-
tinique, Montserrat, Netherlands and Antilles; Turks and Caicos are not
lion, 82% in Colombia & Venezuela, 13% in Central America & Mexico,
included). Figure 3 shows the population density distribution of the
and 5% in the Small Islands. The population in these sub-systems shows
Caribbean Sea region.
diff erent trends of growth. While in Colombia & Venezuela and Central
America the average annual growth rate is close to 2% (1996-2002),
in the Small Islands it is less than 1% (Data for Aruba, Cayman Islands,
REGIONAL DEFINITION
17
Turks & Caicos Islands
Mexico
Cayman Islands
Anguilla
British Virgin Islands
Belize
Virgin Islands (US)
Antigua & Barbuda
Guadeloupe
Guatemala
Dominica
Honduras
Martinique
St. Lucia
Barbados
Nicaragua
Aruba
Grenada
Netherlands Antilles Trinidad & Tobago
Costa Rica
Panama
Venezuela
Population density
(persons/km²)
<1
Colombia
1-2
3-5
6-10
11-100
>100
© GIWA 2006
Figure 3
Population density distribution of Caribbean Sea region.
Source: Landscan 2001
Additionally, the population in the Caribbean Sea region swells during
The infant mortality rate and the percentage of the population with
the tourist season by the infl ux of millions of tourists, mostly in beach
access to treated water sources are indicators of the sanitary condi-
destinations. Almost all the countries in the region belong to the group
tions in the region. In the fi rst case, the rate is estimated at 23 and 19
of the world's premier tourism destinations, providing an important
for each 1000 live births in Colombia & Venezuela respectively. In the
source of income for their economies.
terms of access to treated water, 91% have access in Colombia and 84%
in Venezuela. According to World Bank data (2002), in 2001, annual per
Colombia & Venezuela (3b)
capita income (GNI) in Colombia was 890 USD (current value) and in
Of the three sub-systems included in the GIWA Caribbean Sea region,
Venezuela 4 760 USD (current value). The inhabitants of Colombia are
3b has the highest population with a population of 60.4 million; 62% of
classifi ed as having medium-low incomes and those of Venezuela, me-
these are in Colombia. Between 1996 and 2002 the population of these
dium-high incomes.
countries had average annual growth rates of 1.8% (Colombia) and 2%
(Venezuela). The population growth rate has begun to decrease. Popu-
In Colombia & Venezuela, ploughing lands make up 2% and 3%, and
lation densities are low, estimated in 2001 to be 51 and 28 inhabitants
lands with permanent crops, 2% and 1%, respectively (For general land
per km2 for Colombia & Venezuela respectively (Figure 3). The urban
cover see Figure 4). The agricultural sector in Colombia has an impor-
population index in both countries is the highest in the Caribbean Sea
tant export market, principally for coff ee, bananas, plantains and fl ow-
region, with as many as 75% and 87% living in urban areas in Colombia
ers; in Venezuela, agriculture has relatively little importance, its major
& Venezuela respectively.
agricultural products including corn, coff ee, sugar cane and rice (IICA
2003).
18
GIWA REGIONAL ASSESSMENT 3B, 3C CARIBBEAN SEA/COLOMBIA & VENEZUELA, CARIBBEAN SEA/CENTRAL AMERICA & MEXICO
Turks & Caicos Islands
Mexico
Cayman Islands
Anguilla
British Virgin Islands
Belize
Virgin Islands (US)
Antigua & Barbuda
Guadeloupe
Guatemala
Dominica
Honduras
Martinique
St. Lucia
Barbados
Nicaragua
Aruba
Grenada
Netherlands Antilles
Trinidad & Tobago
Costa Rica
Landcover
Panama
Barren
Venezuela
Cropland
Forest
Developed
Colombia
Grassland
Savanna
Shrubland
Wetland
© GIWA 2006
Figure 4
Land cover in the Caribbean Sea region.
In Colombia, the seven most economically important sectors in 2001
high dependence on the primary sector for export, particularly
were service industries; commerce; agricultural products; fi nancial
petroleum, coff ee, fruits, and coal.
services; livestock products; and extractive activities for petroleum,
natural gas and minerals such as uranium and toro (DANE 2002). Mining
The cities that have the highest water consumption are Bogotá, Medel-
activities are the most signifi cant contributor to Venezuela's economy
lín, Cali, Barranquilla, Pereira, Bucaramanga, Cartagena, Santa Marta,
accounting for 22% of GDP in 2000, followed by services (20%) and
Manizales and Sincelejo.
manufacturing industries (Comunidad Andina 2003).
Central America & Mexico (3c)
The size of these economies in terms of GDP for 2001 equates to 82.4
The countries of sub-system 3c have a total population of 9.9 million
billion USD (current value) for Colombia and 124.9 billion USD (current
inhabitants, of which 53% are from Honduras, 17% from Guatemala,
value) for Venezuela. GDP growth rate between 2001 and 2005, accord-
14 % from Nicaragua, 5% from Quintana Roo, 4% from Costa Rica, 4%
ing to estimations by The World Bank (2002), were only 0.7% per year in
from Panama and 1 % from Belize. The average population growth rate
Venezuela and 2.3% per year for Colombia. The economic structure of
(2.6% per year) is the greatest in the GIWA Caribbean Sea region, with
the two countries diff ers, with agriculture contributing a higher propor-
the highest rates in Belize (3.3%), Honduras (3%) and Nicaragua (2.7%).
tion of GDP in Colombia, and mining and industry more important in
The average population density is 31 inhabitants per km2, being par-
Venezuela. In Colombia, during 2001, the agriculture sector constituted
ticularly low in Belize (12 per km2), Mexico (13 per km2) and Nicaragua
13% of GDP, industry 30%, manufacturing 16% and the services sector
(14 per km2) (Figure 3). Belize is the smallest country in the sub-system
57%. In Venezuela in 2001, the agriculture sector contributed only 5%
and also has the lowest population density in the whole region, but is
to GDP, industry 50.4%, manufacturing 19.8% and services 44.8%. Al-
currently experiencing high population growth. Approximately 49% of
though these economies are more diversifi ed than those of the coun-
the population lives in urban areas; in Costa Rica, 59%, Nicaragua, 57%,
tries in sub-system 3a, the Small Islands, they too face the problem of a
and Panama, 57%. According to INEGI (2003), in the last ten years the
REGIONAL DEFINITION
19
population of Quintana Roo, Mexico, has grown by 77%; this population
The Convention for the Protection and Development of the Marine
is concentrated in the coastal zone in the north of the State.
Environment in the Wider Caribbean Region (the Cartagena Con-
vention), and its protocols.
Except for Costa Rica, the infant mortality rates of the countries of the
sub-system are higher than the rest of the region with an average rate
Other international conventions relating to the Caribbean Sea region
of 33 per 1000 live births. In Costa Rica, the rate is 9 per 1000 live births,
include the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), the United Na-
while in Guatemala it is 49 and in Nicaragua and Honduras, 36. The
tions Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCC), the Interna-
average percentage of the population with access to treated water
tional Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL),
is similar to 3b, estimated at 89%. According to data from The World
the Convention on Wetlands (the Ramsar Convention), and the United
Bank (2002), per capita income in 2001 was approximately 2 600 USD
Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS). Figure 5 shows
(current value). There are no available data for Quintana Roo (Mexico)
the areas designated as international protected areas in the Caribbean
and Nicaragua. Costa Rica and Panama are the richest countries in the
Sea region.
region, classifi ed as medium-high income, with 4 040 USD and 3 260
USD per capita income respectively. According to the PNUD (2002),
The Caribbean Action Plan
Mexico, Costa Rica, Belize and Panama are ranked in the top 60 countries
The Caribbean Action Plan emerged as a result of many years of work by
in terms of human development, whereas Guatemala, Nicaragua and
governmental and non-governmental representatives of the Caribbean
Honduras are in the bottom 100 countries. The ranking is based on
community, assisted primarily by UNEP. The programme objectives
indicators (based on offi
cial statistics) such as health, life expectancy,
embraced by the Caribbean Action Plan, adopted in 1981, include the
technological development and education.
following (UNEP-CEP 2003):
Assistance to all countries of the region recognising the special
Countries where the agriculture sector contributes most to GDP are
situation of the smaller islands;
Nicaragua (32%), Guatemala (23%) and Honduras (13%). Industry
Coordination of international assistance activities;
contributes over 20% of GDP in all countries except Panama, where
Strengthening existing national and sub-regional institutions;
the service sector is dominant (77%). The manufacturing sector is most
Technical cooperation in the use of the region's human, fi nancial
signifi cant in Costa Rica and Honduras, accounting for 20.8% and 20.3%
and natural resources.
of GDP respectively. Costa Rica has developed a fl ourishing sector of
eco-tourism.
The Cartagena Convention
The Convention for the Protection and Development of the Marine En-
In 2001, the countries with the largest economies in terms of GDP were
vironment in the Wider Caribbean Region (Cartagena Convention) was
Guatemala (20.5 billion USD) and Costa Rica (16.1 billion USD). Belize has
adopted in Cartagena, Colombia, in March 1983 and entered into force
the smallest economy (805 million USD), although has the highest per
in October 1986 for the legal implementation of the Action Plan for the
capita income after Costa Rica and Panama. In general, between 1991
Caribbean Environment Programme (UNEP/CEP 1983). The Cartagena
and 2001, the countries of 3c experienced good economic growth.
Convention has been ratifi ed by 21 United Nations member states in
Belize, Costa Rica, Guatemala and Nicaragua had an average growth rate
the Wider Caribbean Region and has already carried out 21 Conferences
higher than 4% during the same period, while the respective growths
of the Parties (COP). Its area of application comprises the marine envi-
of Honduras and Panama were 3% and 3.5% respectively.
ronment of the Gulf of Mexico, the Caribbean Sea and the areas of the
Atlantic Ocean adjacent thereto, south of 30° N and within 200 nautical
Legal framework
miles of the Atlantic Coasts of the United States.
The regional environmental legislative regime comprises diff erent
international conventions that are related to marine and coastal
The legal structure of the Convention is such that it covers the various
resource management. For the Caribbean region in particular, the
aspects of marine pollution for which the Contracting Parties must
United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) has played a leading
adopt measures. Thus, the Convention requires the adoption of
role in the establishment of a number of conventions, action plans and
measures aimed at preventing, reducing and controlling pollution of
protocols. These include:
the following areas:
The Caribbean Action Plan,
Pollution from ships;
Pollution caused by dumping;
20
GIWA REGIONAL ASSESSMENT 3B, 3C CARIBBEAN SEA/COLOMBIA & VENEZUELA, CARIBBEAN SEA/CENTRAL AMERICA & MEXICO
Nr Name
Country
Marine?
Area (ha)
Convention
Established
1 Ti
nal Pa
Ref
Si
Cro
g
A
abiqu
Res v
6
Ka
7 Sia
efugi
de Cuero
0 Lago
ás Astur
tem
ma
7
aguna de Bacalar
5 Cuenca
Costa
3
1
5
4
9
13
2
6
8
12
22
10
11
18
16
35
19
28
37
14
26
27
17
20
15
24
36
31
25
21
23
Nr Name
Country
Marine?
Area (ha)
Convention
Established
c
ica
ossta
1991
ca a
1
38
c agua
0
s
9
os
a
98
cara ua
01
na a
Co
Ri
Y
5
95
995
International protected areas
P
m
Y
14
Ramsa
3
a
ia
400 00
8
RAMSAR
a
ela
199
Re
World Heritage Convention
V
enezuela
Biosphere reserves
N
38
ge
² GIWA 2004
Figure 5
International protected areas.
(Source: UNEP/WCMC 2003)
Pollution from sea-bed activities;
The Cartagena Convention is not the only multilateral environmental
Airborne
pollution;
agreement applicable in the region. However, its regional area of appli-
Pollution from land-based sources and activities.
cation makes it an important complement to other agreements (UNEP-
CEP 2003). Other applicable agreements include the Convention on
In addition, the countries are required to take appropriate measures to
Biological Diversity, the Convention on Climate Change, MARPOL 73/78,
protect and preserve rare or fragile ecosystems, as well as the habitat of
Ramsar, and the Law of the Sea.
depleted, threatened or endangered species and to develop technical
and other guidelines for planning and environmental impact assess-
ments of important development projects in order to prevent or reduce
harmful impacts (UNEP-CEP 2003).
The transboundary basins of
the Caribbean Sea region
The Cartagena Convention has been supplemented by three Protocols
in respect of Cooperation in Combating Oil Spills, Specially Protected
The transboundary basins of the region were defi ned using the follow-
Areas and Wildlife, and Pollution from Land-Based Sources and
ing criteria: (1) rivers that fl ow through more than one country, with
Activities (Annex III).
basins shared between countries; (2) basins that aff ect other countries
due to sea currents transporting water discharged by their rivers; and (3)
basins aff ected by other countries in the region. Basins that are shared
REGIONAL DEFINITION
21
Table 3 Transboundary basins in Caribbean Sea region.
The basins analysed in this assessment are restricted to those with
Basin Country/countries
available information, namely the basins of the Magdalena, Orinoco,
Hondo River (Bahía de Chetumal- Valle de Cotzalco)
Belize, Mexico and Guatemala
Catatumbo, Hondo, Belize, Moho, Temash, Sarstoon, and San Juan rivers,
and the Panama Canal. Insuffi
cient information could be found on the
Belize River
Belize and Guatemala
Changuinola, Coco and Montaqua basins.
Moho River (it flows into Honduras Gulf)
Belize and Guatemala
Temash River (it flows into Honduras Gulf)
Belize and Guatemala
Colombia and Venezuela (3b)
Sarstoon River (it flows into Honduras Gulf)
Belize and Guatemala
The Magdalena, Orinoco and Catatumbo basins were identifi ed as
San Juan River
Costa Rica and Nicaragua
having transboundary impacts, because they are shared by both
Sixaola River
Costa Rica and Panamá
countries and/or aff ect the Caribbean Sea.
Panama canal (Chagras River, Indio River, Burlei Norte River)
Panamá
Magdalena River
Colombia
Magdalena River
Orinoco River
Colombia and Venezuela
The Magdalena River fl ows from the eastern and central mountain
Catatumbo River
Colombia and Venezuela
chains before discharging into the Caribbean Sea (DNP 1995). Water
Changuinola River
Costa Rica and Panama
bodies comprise 2.56% of the total catchment area (CORMAGDALENA
Coco River
Honduras and Nicaragua
2002). The Magdalena and Cauca river systems have the greatest fl ow
Motaqua River
Guatemala and Honduras
and largest extent of any in the Caribbean Sea region. Magdalena is the
longest river in the Andes, stretching for 1540 km, and the Cauca, its
by two countries, which are part of nature reserves in one country and
principal tributary (1015 km). The Magdalena River has more than 500 ef-
not in the other, thus causing a transboundary management problem,
fl uents, not including creeks and small water bodies (CORMAGDALENA
are also considered. The region's transboundary basins are given in
& IDEAM 2001). Its source is at the "Macizo Colombiano", a mountain
Table 3 and Figure 6.
that reaches 3 600 metres above sea level, and it discharges to the sea
Cayman Islands
Mexico
Virgin Is. (US)
Belize
St. Kitts & Nevis
Guadeloupe
Guatemala
a
uc
gua
n
Agua
at
Dominica
Mota
P
Honduras
Coco
Martinique
Prinzap
St. Lucia
olca
St. Vincent & the Grenadines
Barbados
Nicaragua
Aruba Netherlands Antilles Grenada
San Juan
Tocuyo
r
Trinidad & Tobago
Costa Rica
sa
Ce
e
r
C
Major river basins
oj
ire
riusa
ed
p
Una
e
Ma
e
s
na
Belize
u
rg
Panama
Ma
Sin
Jo
Zulia
e
San
Apure
cur
Catatumbo
Orinoco
A
hi
Chi
A
Arauca
t
c
rato
Nec
am
Changuinola
oc
Venezuela
ha
Meta
ragua Car
Pa
Coco (Segovia)
a
on
ne
Ca
Ariporo
i
al
At
Ura
ur
ricoe
Hondo
r
a
a
gd
Tomo
a
ba
ca
Ma
p
au
o
Motaqua
C
Colombia
Vichada
Uva
Itevia
Orinoco
re
aviare
Gu
Inirida
San Juan
Brazil
Sarstun
Sixaola
© GIWA 2006
Figure 6
Transboundary river basins of the Caribbean Sea region
(Source: USGS 2001)
22
GIWA REGIONAL ASSESSMENT 3B, 3C CARIBBEAN SEA/COLOMBIA & VENEZUELA, CARIBBEAN SEA/CENTRAL AMERICA & MEXICO
through lowland plains and a complex of coastal marshes. The com-
Delta forms an extensive wetland, with a highly dynamic environment
plex is a naturally regulating system, absorbing excess water in the
controlled by fl uvial supply, tides, and wave action. Rich in biological
rainy season and releasing it during the dry period (CORMAGDALENA
diversity, the Delta is classed as one of eight distinct bio-geographical
& IDEAM 2001).
units within Venezuela, which is one of the world's 17 most biologically
rich countries (Bowles et al. 1998 in UNDP 1999), and listed by WWF
Historically, the MagdalenaCauca River Basin was important for the
as a "Global 200" priority ecoregion. Dinerstein et al. (1995 in UNDP
exploration of the interior of South America and today most of Colom-
1999) identifi ed three major ecoregions, namely: Orinoco Swamp
bia's economic activities are concentrated in this area (Figure 6). Conse-
Forests; Orinoco Flooded Grasslands; and Amazon-Orinoco-Maranháo
quently, the basin has been placed under great ecological, economic,
Mangrove Forests. These categories can be divided further into at least
political and social pressures. Approximately 27 million ha of the basin
eleven aquatic habitats, including blackwater and whitewater river
(74% of its area) is aff ected by agricultural activities, mining operations,
tributaries, freshwater lakes, seasonal swamps, and various estuarine
human settlements and planted forests. The largest urban settlements
and marine habitats (UNDP 1999).
in Colombia, including Cali, Medellin, Bogotá, Barranquilla and Carta-
gena, are all situated within the basin, which is consequently the most
The Orinoco Delta lies within Amacuro State, which has a population
densely populated region of the country (CORMAGDALENA 2002).
of 123 000 (0.5% of the national total), including 21 000 Amerindians
of Warao ethnicity. The majority reside in a cluster of settlements, with
The economic activities taking place in the MagdalenaCauca River
the state capital of Tucupita registering a population of 80 000, leaving
Basin generate 85% of the country's GDP. It is the location for 90% of
the Delta proper with a very low population density. However, with
the country's industrial production, 75% of agricultural and cattle raising
an overall growth rate of 4.1% per year, the population is expected to
production, 70% of hydroelectric power, 95% of thermoelectric energy,
double within the next two decades. The region has some of the worst
85% of river transport, 72% of infrastructure for petroleum transport and
social and economic development problems in Venezuela, with 66%
80% of forest plantations (CORMAGDALENA 2002).
of the population living in poverty and 45% of the population living
in extreme poverty. Unemployment is 17.3%, higher than the national
Orinoco River
average, and the UNDP Index of Human Development for the State is
The Orinoco River has a catchment area of approximately 1 080 000
0.62 (the national average is 0.82) (UNDP 1999).
km2 and is mainly considered a white water river. The river measures 2
140 km in length and discharges annually 1.2 x 1012 m3 of water into the
The principal economic activities in the more densely populated
Caribbean Sea (39 000 m3 per second), constituting the third highest
western sector of the Orinoco Delta are petroleum and natural
fl ow in the world (Colmenares 1990, GIPROCOST 2001). Furthermore,
gas exploration, extraction activities on a very limited scale, semi-
the Orinoco River has the world's seventh largest river delta (WWF 1986)
commercial and subsistence agriculture, and employment by the
(Figure 6). In the south of Venezuela, the Orinoco has many tributaries
State. The Delta's eastern sector is less populated but supports most
with vast water resources.
of the Warao population (approximately 15 000 persons). Artisanal and
subsistence fi shing, commercial and subsistence hunting, harvesting
The rainfall patterns in the Orinoco River Basin exhibit a strong seasonal
of forest products, and semi-commercial agriculture constitute the
pattern. Precipitation is generally lowest during the initial months of a
main land uses. Taro and plantains, both exotic to the region, dominate
year, increasing to a maximum around the months of June and July,
agricultural production. A growing ecotourism industry is providing a
and decreases rapidly thereafter. Inter-annual variability between
new source of employment (UNDP 1999).
1994 and 1998 was modest, with maximum and minimum deviations
from the yearly mean total precipitation of 17% (1997) and 29% (1996),
Catatumbo River
respectively (Corredor and Morell 2001).
The Catatumbo River Basin has an area of 16 200 km2, 70% of which
lies within Colombia and 30% in Venezuela (Wildlife 2003) (Figure 6). In
The Orinoco River Delta or Amacuro Delta, formed by sediments
Colombia its principal rivers are the Zulia, Sardinata, Tarra, Táchira, Cu-
supplied by the river, extends over an area of 24 553 km2. Only dense
cutilla, San Miguel, Presidente, Guarumito and Río de Oro (Colmenare
sediment is deposited in the delta, whereas the lighter sediments are
1990, Meléndez 1999, GIPROCOST 2001).
suspended in the water column and transported out to sea in what is
known as the Orinoco plume (Colmenares 1990, GIPROCOST 2001). The
REGIONAL DEFINITION
23
The Catatumbo moist forests exist as four distinct enclaves within the
vegetation is composed principally of mangroves (Rhizophora mangle
Catatumbo valley, in both northwestern Venezuela and northeastern
and Conocarpus erectus) and has a high biodiversity (Herrera Silveira
Colombia. It is among the richest moist forest in fl oral diversity in humid
et al. 2002).
tropical areas of Venezuela. These forests fl ank the lower slopes and low-
lands between the Cordillera de Mérida and the Cordillera Oriental of
The primary water infl ow to Chetumal Bay is supplied by Hondo River
the northern Andes, and occur as several outliers in the vicinity of Lake
and through the mouth of the bay to the sea (Herrera Silveira et al 2002).
Maracaibo, at the Caribbean coast (Wildlife 2003).
The Hondo River supplies 1 500 million m3 of freshwater and, through its
mosaic of wetlands, lagoons and other water bodies, plays an important
Some areas in the western and southern part of the region have
role regulating climate and hydrology in the region (CONABIO 2003).
experienced anthropogenic impacts. Logging, agriculture, and the
extension of grazing have impacted the area resulting in secondary
The Mexican portion of Chetumal Bay, located in the south of Quintana
vegetation. The only protected area in the region is Catatumbo Bari
Roo, was declared a Manatee sanctuary in 1999 and is designated as an
National Park (IUCN category II), located in the east of Colombia.
Area for Ecological Conservation "Bahía de Chetumal - Santuario del
However, most of the 1 581 km2 park is located in the Cordillera
Manatí". The total surface of the protected area is 2 813 km2; 1 013 km2
Oriental mountain forests, and little of the moist forest is protected
terrestrial and 1 800 km2 marine. A manatee sanctuary has also been
(Wildlife 2003).
created in Belize's portion of Chetumal Bay.
Central America & Mexico (3c)
Belize River
Hondo River-Bahía de Chetumal- Valle de Cotzalco
The Belize River fl ows through Guatemala and Belize, and stretches for
The Hondo River is a meandering watercourse that forms the interna-
miles to the west and north of Belmopan (Figure 6). Its broad fl oodplain
tional border between Belize and Mexico (Figure 6) (Microsoft Encarta
is the centre of intensive agricultural development. To the east, the land
2002). It originates in northern Peten (Guatemala), Campeche (Mexico)
slopes gently towards the sea and is covered with tropical forest and
and the northern Maya Mountains in Belize and debouches into Chetu-
limestone hills. To the south rise the foothills of the Maya Mountains.
mal Bay. The spatial extent of the Hondo Basin is 13 465 km2, of which
The river is fl anked by dense forests including vines and epiphytes. The
approximately 23% lies within Belize, 22% in Guatemala and 55% in Mex-
forests are bordered to the east by cohune palm forests and to the west
ico. The basin is divided into four sub-catchments: Escondido, Hondo
by a belt of pine forest and pine savanna.
River-Mexico, Hondo River-Belize, and Blue Creek.
There are a number of diff erent protected areas in the basin. One of
The basin's relief is very low more than 70% has a slope less than
them is the Community Baboon Sanctuary, located within the lowland
5 degrees. The climate is humid and warm with a mean annual
broadleaf forests of north-central Belize. It was established to protect
temperature of 24-28 °C. The rainy season lasts from June to September
one of the few healthy black howler monkey populations in Central
and the mean annual rainfall varies between 1000 and 1500 mm. Hondo
America. Despite the existence of protected areas there is evidence that
River has a peak fl ow of 220 m3/s during the rainy season and a base
22% of the basin's vegetation cover has been lost since 1989 (DiFiore
fl ow of 20 m3/s during the dry season. Waters in the bay are shallow and
2002, Microsoft Encarta 2002).
fi sheries resources are limited, with lowland littoral areas consisting of
marshland (CONABIO 2003).
Moho River
The Moho River Basin is a transnational watershed, shared between Be-
Chetumal Bay is a transboundary water body shared between Belize and
lize and Guatemala (Figure 6) and occupying an area of approximately 1
Mexico (Quintana Roo State) on the southeastern side of the Yucatan
188 km2, of which about 822 km2 is in Belize. The Moho River has numer-
Peninsula. It is a hypohaline system, with a surface area of 1 098 km2
ous tributaries that drain the uplands of the basin (elevation between
(CONABIO 2003). The bay has a featureless and shallow bathymetry, with
400 and 900 metres) in the vicinity of Little Quartz Ridge. The River fl ows
depths in the range 15 m. Chetumal Bay is an estuarine environment
into the Port Honduras Marine Reserve, home to the endangered West
as a result of its interconnectivity with the Hondo River, New River
Indian Manatee. The southernmost stretch of the Belize Barrier Reef
and Fresh water Creek catchments. The shallow bathymetry coupled
is the Sapodilla Cays Marine Reserve. Generally the quality of surface
with very slow water exchange makes the bay vulnerable to impacts
water is inadequate for human consumption and supplies during the
from development in the adjacent watershed (CONABIO 2003). The
dry season are insuffi
cient, particularly in Mafredi Creek. Moho River
24
GIWA REGIONAL ASSESSMENT 3B, 3C CARIBBEAN SEA/COLOMBIA & VENEZUELA, CARIBBEAN SEA/CENTRAL AMERICA & MEXICO
watershed is currently used for forestry, agriculture and rural develop-
Dolores, Machakilha and Graham creeks contain communities that use
ment. Several attempts have been made to abstract water from Mafredi
surface water predominantly for domestic purposes. Groundwater is not
Creek for crop irrigation.
used. Milpa (traditional slash and burn) farming is the primary activity in
this watershed. The isolation of the region from major settlements has
There are about 20 communities distributed throughout this watershed.
limited development and preserved its ecosystems.
The rivers are used domestically as a source of potable water and for
laundry and bathing purposes. Most communities rely on hand pumps
San Juan River
and cisterns as their principal source of potable water.
The San Juan River is the natural frontier between Nicaragua and Costa
Rica (Figure 6); its basin extending across southeastern Nicaragua and
Temash River
northeastern Costa Rica to the Caribbean Sea. It fl ows from Nicaragua
Temash River Basin has an area of 475 km2 and is shared between Belize
Lake for 193 km, forming a large delta south of Mosquito coast in San
(360 km2) and Guatemala (115 km2) (Figure 6). The river system consists
Juan del Norte Bay. The River also receives runoff from the surround-
of a dense network of streams that drain low-lying sections of the wa-
ing chains of mountains, namely the Yolaina, Amerrisque, Volcanic and
tershed. The elevation in the Belize portion of the watershed is mostly
Central mountains (Microsoft Encarta 2002).
below 100 metres. The watershed is predominantly covered by broad
leaf forest, but there is also riparian vegetation with swamps and man-
The basin links ecosystems that are particularly valuable for their
groves. The basin has a low population density, with only six villages,
biodiversity and economic potential. The waters of the Lake Nicaragua
and subsistence farming is mainly practiced, suggesting that water
and San Juan River watershed fl ow through at least eight distinct
quality and the aquatic ecosystems have been preserved. The streams
terrestrial ecosystems: (i) dry tropical forest to the east, north, and
in this watershed are used primarily for domestic water supply, canoe
west of Lake Nicaragua; (ii) cloud forest in the high areas of the Central
navigation and fi shing.
Volcanic Cordillera of Costa Rica; (iii) moist tropical forest to the south
and southwest of Lake Nicaragua and in the eastern foothills; (iv) very
Sarstoon River
moist tropical forest in San Juan Valley and on the coastal plains; (v)
The Sarstoon River forms the southern border between Belize and Gua-
gallery forest along river banks; (vi) wetlands to the south of Lake
temala (Figure 6). The watershed covers an area of 2 218 km2; the major-
Nicaragua and at the confl uences of the Colorado and Tortuguero
ity located in Guatemala (2 024 km2) while only 194 km2 is in Belize. The
rivers with the San Juan; (vii) second-growth forest, meadows, and
basin is low-lying and most of the land is less than 20 m above mean
agricultural land in extensive areas of the basin; and (viii) coastal forest
sea level. The Gracias a Dios and San Pedro Savery ranges on the south-
and mangrove swamps on the Caribbean coast. The Indio and Maiz
western border are exceptions with maximum elevations of 219 m and
river basins are covered by moist and very moist tropical forest (UNEP
132 m respectively. The largest river in the watershed is the Sarstoon.
2000a).
The vegetation consists of patches of forest and thicket, and, in more
limited distribution, wet savannah, marsh and mangrove swamp. The
The main environmental problems in the basin related to international
basin supports the only comfrey palm forests in Belize.
waters are; (i) degradation of the quality of water resources; (ii) physical
habitat degradation of coastal and near-shore marine areas, lakes
The Government of Belize established The Temash and Sarstoon Delta
and watercourses; (iii) the introduction of exotic species that disrupt
Wildlife Sanctuary as a protected area in 1992. The Sanctuary covers
aquatic and land ecosystems; and (iv) excessive and/or inappropriate
166 km2 situated between the Temash and Sarstoon rivers in the
exploitation of resources due to inadequate management and control
southernmost region of Belize. It is the second largest National Park
measures (UNEP 2000a). The low population density in many parts
in Belize (The World Bank 2000) and one of the most remote reserves,
of the basin has kept it relatively pristine, although there is little
providing habitat for a variety of wildlife. The Park contains the oldest
information on the potential future impact of human migration trends
and largest area of red mangrove forest in Belize, as well as pristine
and the spread of agriculture (UNEP 2000a). The governments of Costa
wetlands, wet forest and an outstanding diversity of bird species,
Rica and Nicaragua, with the technical assistance of GEF and UNEP, are
amphibians, fi sh and reptiles. Huge schools of minnows and shrimp
already working together on the formulation of a "Strategic Action
support a thriving population of sea birds. Manatees are common along
Plan for the integrated management and sustainable development of
many of the river mouths, feeding on the rich seagrass beds and calving
the hydrological resources and the San Juan River Basin and its coastal
in the quiet bays and oxbows of the rivers (The World Bank 2000b).
area".
REGIONAL DEFINITION
25
Sixaola River
The Law 44 of August 1999 established the legal boundaries of the
The Sixaola River Basin is located within the mountain range of Tala-
Canal watershed, which includes the Chagres River Basin and part
manca in the east of Costa Rica (Figure 6). The basin covers area of 27
of the provinces of Cocle and Colon that were identifi ed as having
057 km2 and reaches elevations of 3820 m above sea level. The fl uvial
a major hydrological potential. Title XIV of the Constitution of the
course length is 146 km and its average slope is 1.9%. The vegetation
Republic of Panama and the Panama Canal Authority Organic Law
consists of rain-cloud tropical forest around the Paramus at the head
have assigned to the Panama Canal Authority (PCA) the responsibility
of the river basin. According to Herrera (1985), three climate categories
for the administration, maintenance, use and conservation of the water
characterize the river basin: Humid Climate, Very Humid Climate and
resources of the Panama Canal watershed, due to the importance of
Excessively Humid Climate, with variations of temperature during the
water for the operation of the waterway. The law also requires that the
dry season.
PCA administer uses these water resources to ensure the supply of water
to adjacent populated areas (PCA 2003).
The Sixaola Basin is an area with limited urban development, where
the economy is sustained on the production of bananas for export,
To coordinate the eff orts of government agencies and the Panama
seasonal cultivated areas, subsistence agriculture and grass. Settlements
Canal Authority for the conservation of the region's natural resources,
are dispersed but are found in greater density in the Valley of Talamanca.
the Organic Law of the Panama Canal stipulated that an International
The main ethnic groups are the Bribris, Cabécares and immigrants from
Commission for the Canal Watershed (CICH) should be established for
other regions of Panama and Costa Rica.
the main purpose of integrating the eff orts, initiatives, and resources for
the conservation and management of the watershed and promoting
Panama Canal
its sustainable development (PCA 2003). The Panama Canal Authority
The Panama Canal watershed has a surface area of 5 528 km2 (Figure 6).
chairs the Commission for the Canal Watershed (CICH) and its other
The Canal is approximately 80 km long, connecting the Atlantic and
members are the Ministry of Government and Justice, the Ministry
Pacifi c oceans. This waterway was cut through one of the narrowest
of Agricultural Development, the Ministry of Housing, the National
saddles of the Central American isthmus and was offi
cially opened in
Environmental Authority, the Inter-oceanic Region Authority, the
1914 (PCA 2003).
NATURA Foundation, and Caritas Arquidiocesana (PCA 2003).
The hydrographic basin of the Canal is a water reservoir (ACP 2000).
Its resources have the potential to meet the present and future water
supply needs of most of the population of Panama and the Panama
Canal operations (PCA 2003). The Canal is not only an important water
source for ship transport, but also provides 95% of the raw water to be
treated for the freshwater supply of Colon, Panama, San Miguelito and in
the near future La Chorrera (ACP 2000). Studies are being undertaken to
evaluate the potential of the watershed's western region to meet future
water demand (PCA 2003).
The Panama Canal watershed has a high biodiversity with approximately
70 species of amphibians, 112 species of reptiles, 546 bird species and
over a hundred thousand species of trees (PCA 2003).
Panama off ers a unique service for international trading through the
canal (ACP 2000), with ships from all parts of the world transiting
through the Panama Canal. Some 13 to 14 thousand vessels use the
Canal every year. In fact, commercial transportation activities through
the Canal represent approximately 5% of world trade (PCA 2003).
26
GIWA REGIONAL ASSESSMENT 3B, 3C CARIBBEAN SEA/COLOMBIA & VENEZUELA, CARIBBEAN SEA/CENTRAL AMERICA & MEXICO
Assessment
This section presents the results of the assessment of the impacts
It is important to note that in most of the Caribbean Sea region, the im-
of each of the fi ve predefi ned GIWA concerns, i.e. Freshwater
pact of human activities on the environment is fairly well studied, but
shortage, Pollution, Habitat and community modifi cation,
knowledge regarding how the degraded environment aff ects the social
Unsustainable exploitation of fi sh and other living resources,
and economic well-being of the region is scarce.
and Global change, as well as their
Table 4 GIWA
scoring
Colombia-Venezuela sub-system
Central America & Mexico sub-system
constituent issues and the priorities
table for the Colombia &
ts
ts
identifi ed during this process. The
Venezuela sub-system
ts
ts
and the Central America &
core**
core**
evaluation of the severity of each issue
ts
ts
ts
ts
Mexico sub-system.
vironmental
adheres to a set of predefi ned criteria
ther community
v
erall S
vironmental
ther community
v
erall S
En
impac
E
c
onomic impac
Health impac
O
impac
O
Priority***
En
impac
E
c
onomic impac
Health impac
O
impac
O
Priority***
as provided in the chapter describing
Freshwater shortage
1*
2
1
1
1.2
5
2*
3
2
3
2.6
4
the GIWA methodology. In this Modification of stream flow
1
3
Pollution of existing supplies
1
2
section, the scoring of GIWA concerns
Changes in the water table
0
1
and issues is presented in Table 4.
Pollution
2*
2
2
2
1.6
3
3*
3
3
2
2.4
2
Details of the scoping results for
Microbiological pollution
1
1
each GIWA concern and its associated
Eutrophication
1
2
Chemical
2
3
environmental issues for the region are
Suspended solids
2
3
provided in Annex II.
Solid wastes
2
2
Thermal
1
1
Radionuclides
0
0
This report presents the assessment results
Spills
3
3
of the Colombia & Venezuela sub-system
Habitat and community modification
3*
2
1
2
1.9
1
3*
3
1
3
2.2
1
(3b) and the Central America & Mexico
Loss of ecosystems
2
3
sub-system (3c) of the GIWA Caribbean
Modification of ecosystems
3
3
Sea region. The assessment is based prin-
Unsustainable exploitation of fish
2*
2
1
2
1.5
2
3*
1
0
3
2.5
3
cipally on expert knowledge and profes-
Overexploitation
3
3
Excessive by-catch and discards
1
0
sional judgment, and where possible sub-
Destructive fishing practices
2
3
stantiated with scientifi c papers. However,
Decreased viability of stock
1
1
in certain cases there are no supporting
Impact on biological and genetic diversity
2
1
Global change
2*
2
2
2
1.7
4
2*
3
2
3
3.0
5
references as the fi ndings are not offi
cially
Changes in hydrological cycle
2
2
published, are included in grey litera-
Sea level change
1
2
ture, are part of an ongoing monitoring
Increased UV-B radiation
1
0
programme, or there is currently no sup-
Changes in ocean CO source/sink function
1
1
2
Assessment of GIWA concerns and issues according to scoring criteria (see Methodology chapter)
The arrow indicates the likely
porting data available. More studies are
T
T
T
T
direction of future changes.
C
C
C
C
A 0
No known impacts
A 1
Slight impacts
A 2
Moderate impacts
A 3
Severe impacts
needed to support the expert opinion.
IMP
IMP
IMP
IMP
Increased impact
No changes
*
This value represents an average weighted score of the environmental issues associated to the concern.
** This value represents the overall score including environmental, socio-economic and likely future impacts.
Decreased impact
*** Priority refers to the ranking of GIWA concerns.
ASSESSMENT
27
Assessment of the Colombia & Venezuela
sub-system
T
C
A
Freshwater shortage
IMP
1980, Rincón 1990, ECODES-ECOPETROL 1999). The pollution of freshwa-
ter supplies has occurred mainly as a result of the discharge of wastewa-
The environmental impacts of freshwater shortage are slight, and the
ter and spills from various human activities (CORMAGDALENA & IDEAM
socio-economic impacts are considered slight to moderate (Annex
2001, Garay 1990-93-97, Ruiz et al. 1992, Villa 1998). In Magdalena Basin,
II, Scoring tables). There is limited information available on both the
livestock farming and agricultural practices including the growing of il-
Catatumbo and Orinoco river basins; further studies are required to
legal crops are adversely aff ecting water quality (Villa 1998, Knight 2002,
determine their environmental status. The assessment of this concern
Marquis 2002). In the Orinoco delta, oil spills from defective pipelines
therefore concentrates on the Magdalena Basin.
have contaminated the local water supply (RAN 2003).
Modification of stream flow
Changes in the water table
The regional team considered the impacts of the modifi cation of stream
The impact of changes in the water table was assessed as having `no
fl ow to be slight as there is no evidence of a signifi cant reduction in
known impacts' as there is no evidence that abstraction of water from
stream fl ow in any of the three transboundary basins of sub-system 3b
aquifers exceeds the natural recharge rates. The present consumption
(FAO 1994, Senior et al. 1999).
of drinking water is not aff ecting the water table and eff ective legis-
lation exists to regulate the use of groundwater in both Colombia &
Stream fl ow has been modifi ed to a certain extent by higher evapora-
Venezuela.
tion and a reduction in rainfall in dry areas such as La Guajira in Colom-
bia. This change in the water balance has resulted in coastal ecosystems
Economic impacts
experiencing a defi cit in water. Consequently, salinisation has increased
The impact of the freshwater shortage concern on the economy of
and mangroves have experienced slow growth rates and some mor-
the sub-system is considered moderate. The economic activities in the
tality during the dry season (Dirección General de Ecosistemas 2002a).
Magdalena Basin generate approximately 85% of the GDP of Colom-
Fisheries resources have been aff ected in terms of their abundance, and
bia. These activities are highly dependent on water supply; in 2000 the
changes in salinity have altered the distribution of marine- and fresh-
basin's municipalities consumed 1 942 417 m³, of which 83% was used
water fi sh species at Cienaga Grande de Santa Marta and Complejo de
in urban areas. The industrial sector is the highest consumer of water,
Pajarales (see Biological and genetic diversity, 3b) (INVEMAR 2001).
using 58% of the total water abstracted in 2000 (CORMAGDALENA
2002). Therefore, any future changes in freshwater availability can sig-
According to CORMAGDALENA (2002), the Canal del Dique marshes
nifi cantly aff ect the economic activities of the region.
in the Magdalena Basin have been aff ected by dredging and the con-
struction of hydraulic structures. The water surface area and depth of
Since the mid-1980s, the contamination of the sub-system's freshwater
the marshes has decreased as a result of canals diverting water. The
supplies has necessitated the construction of facilities to remove accu-
change in the water regime, notably in Salamanca Island (Santa Marta)
mulated pollutants originating from the petroleum industry located in
and Tesca and Francés swamps, has impacted the Caribbean man-
Barrancabermeja. These facilities have incurred signifi cant economic
groves of the Magdalena Basin (CORMAGDALENA 2002).
costs (CORMAGDALENA 1999).
Pollution of existing supplies
The pollution of existing supplies was considered to be the most severe
The pollution of existing supplies, principally from oil spills, is consid-
environmental issue of the freshwater shortage issues. The economic
ered to have slight impacts. There is some localised river pollution but
impacts of freshwater contamination are further assessed under the
the assessed transboundary rivers are able to disperse pollutants due to
pollution concern.
their large volume of stream fl ow and rapid currents (INDEC 1971, HIMAT
28
GIWA REGIONAL ASSESSMENT 3B, 3C CARIBBEAN SEA/COLOMBIA & VENEZUELA, CARIBBEAN SEA/CENTRAL AMERICA & MEXICO
T
C
Human health impacts
A
Pollution
IMP
The health impacts of freshwater shortage were assessed as slight.
Generally, there is adequate water available for the inhabitants of the
Pollution in the Colombia & Venezuela sub-system was assessed as mod-
sub-system, with 91% in Colombia and 84% in Venezuela having ac-
erate (Annex II, Scoring tables). Microbiological pollution is impacting the
cess to treated water. Consequently, there is a low frequency of health
Magdalena Basin, primarily in the dry season when the dispersion capac-
impacts from freshwater shortage in the sub-system. Health indicators,
ity of rivers is reduced due to slower fl ow rates. Poor land management
such as morbidity, were considered during the analysis. Morbidity from
practices have increased the concentration of suspended solids in water
defi ciency diseases and stomach diseases is often caused by the con-
bodies, thus obstructing river fl ow and increasing sedimentation. The
sumption of contaminated water; 21.4 people die per 1000 inhabitants
sediments contain pesticides and nutrients, causing localized euthrophi-
from stomach disease in the Magdalena Basin (Mesclier 1999). Isolated
cation and the bioaccumulation of chemicals in aquatic life.
cases of cholera associated with water shortages and pollution have oc-
curred in areas of poverty near to the Caribbean coast and Magdalena
Microbiological pollution
River (PAHO 1998).
The impacts of microbiological pollution were considered slight since
there are no major transboundary eff ects. There is limited evidence
Other social and community issues
of fi sh contamination and wastewater is likely to be dispersed by river
There are slight other social and community impacts. The rural popula-
currents.
tion is the most vulnerable, where less than 42% receive water from the
aqueduct service. There has been some confl ict between water users
On the Colombian Caribbean coast, 472 653 m³/day of untreated sew-
where either demand has increased or availability decreased.
age are discharged into the sea, produced by 3 073 483 inhabitants from
26 cities. Industry discharges about 6.02 tonnes/day of organic material
Conclusions and future outlook
and about 3.9 tonnes/day of nutrients into Cartagena Bay, in addition to
In Colombia & Venezuela, the impacts of freshwater shortage were as-
other industrial wastes (INVEMAR 2001). According to Garzón-Ferreira
sessed as slight. There is no evidence of any signifi cant depletion of the
et al. (2000), sewage poses a major threat to most coastal ecosystems.
region's water resources (CORMAGDALENA & IDEAM 2001). Variations in
Although there is anecdotal evidence of coral reefs being impacted, no
water availability in the Magdalena and Orinoco basins are consistent with
conclusive studies have been performed.
regional climatic fl uctuations. During the ENSO (El Niño Southern Oscilla-
tion), the water table changes considerably, but this is an external factor
In February 2000, mass fi sh mortalities were recorded in Barlovento, as-
(climate change) and is assessed under the global changes concern.
sociated with pathogen bacteria which previously had only been iden-
tifi ed in freshwater bodies. It was believed the bacteria were contained
The economic impacts are moderate, where as health impacts and
in sediments originating from the Orinoco River plume (UNEP 2002).
other social and community impacts were assessed as slight. The ma-
Water quality and sediment studies conducted on the major rivers of
jority of Colombia's economic activities are located in the Magdalena
eastern Venezuela found that around Matazas the sediments contained
River Basin and therefore changes in freshwater availability or a dete-
high concentrations of organic material. Coliforms were also present at
rioration in water quality can adversely aff ect the country's economy.
concentrations of 11 000 NMP/100 ml, which far exceed the Venezuelan
The assessment identifi ed the pollution of existing supplies as the most
water standards of 1 000 NMP/100 ml (Senior et al. 1999).
severe issue in the basin, with contamination originating from industry,
particularly petroleum production. The fi nancial and technological re-
Eutrophication
sources necessary to construct treatment systems and employ cleaner
The impact of this issue is considered slight as there is only localised algal
technologies are currently lacking (CORMAGDALENA 1999). However,
growth due to nutrient enrichment, but more studies are needed. How-
the inhabitants of the sub-system generally have good access to treated
ever, the recent increase in the use of agro-chemicals, particularly in the
water. In certain rural areas the situation is less positive with the inhabit-
production of illegal crops, has increased nitrogen and phosphorus runoff
ants being more vulnerable to water-related diseases.
from fi elds into rivers and coastal areas (Smayda 1990 in GESAMP 2001).
In future, freshwater is expected to be used more effi
ciently and be of a
In Lake Maracaibo, Venezuela, there have been reports of localised
higher quality due to the implementation of new regulations, water use
eutrophication, and in the waters surrounding the cities of Ojeda and
taxes and the development of cleaner production technologies.
Lagunillas, high nutrient concentrations and a surface layer of cyano-
ASSESSMENT
29
bacteria have been recorded. Other contaminants, such as petroleum,
ary basins of the sub-system. Dioxins and furans are discharged from
interact with the nutrients and alter phytoplankton communities, thus
paper bleaching and incineration plants, mainly in Venezuela. Runoff
reducing the abundance of planktonic algae and the trophic structure
from mining activities and intensive agriculture along the Urabá Gulf
of pelagic ecosystems. An anaerobic zone has been created as a re-
coastline is contaminating the surrounding wetlands (Windevoxhel
sult of eutrophication which is maintained by the introduction of high
2003). In Catatumbo delta, the use of pesticides on behalf of the Co-
density waters which limit the circulation of deep waters (PNUMA 1999,
lombian authorities to fumigate illegal crops is posing a major envi-
Rodriguez 2000).
ronmental problem. During 2002, an estimated 120 km2 of crops were
fumigated (El País 2002).
According to Gaspar (1996), nutrient loads and primary productivity
remain constant from June to December along the Venezuelan north-
Chemical pollution has been detected in close proximity to the major
east coast despite upwelling only supplying nutrients from January to
cities of Magdalena Basin but there is insuffi
cient data regarding the rest
May. Large rivers, such as the Orinoco, inshore currents and coastal la-
of the basin. Effl
uents discharged by industry on the Colombian coast
goons are believed to enrich the coastal waters with nutrients, result-
are predominantly from Cartagena and Barranquilla, and, to a lesser de-
ing in eutrophication between May and November when upwelling is
gree, Puerto Bolivar, Santa Marta, Tolu-Covenas and Turbo. Petrol refi ner-
less pronounced. Corredor & Morell (2001) analysed historical data and
ies, distilleries, food processing and packing industries (meat, chicken,
demonstrated that during the rainy season increased nutrient (Chl-a)
shrimps and fi sh), pulp and paper manufacturers, and chemical indus-
concentrations from the Orinoco River plume result in a net increase in
tries (organic and inorganic) are the largest polluters. The chicken and
phytoplankton carbon biomass.
fi sh processing industries of Cartagena discharge 70% of the total BOD
5
released, while petroleum refi neries and shipping discharge 80% of all
Most nitrogen in the Orinoco River outfl ow is in the form of organic
petroleum pollutants in the sub-system (INVEMAR 2001).
compounds. During water quality and sediment studies conducted
in eastern Venezuela, concentrations of nitrogen were between 19.87
The mangroves of the Atlantico Department, Cienaga de Mallorquin
µmol/l and 35.11 µmol/l. The highest concentrations of nitrites were
(Magdalena Basin), are being degraded by chemical pollution dis-
found at the outfl ow of a canal from a vanadium enterprise (Senior et
charged by Barranquilla industries; the accumulation of contaminants
al. 1999). Between 1991 and 1996, a climatic anomaly and pronounced
in mangrove forests; and the higher sediment loads in the Magdalena
nutrient enrichment resulted in a severe phytoplankton bloom followed
River causing increased sedimentation. Wastewater containing chemi-
by sudden oxygen depletion, which led to a reduction of coral reef
cals is discharged into the swamps of Balboa and Rincon; impacting the
cover from 43% to less than 5% in Morrocoy National Park, Venezuela
health of the fi sheries and mangroves. In Bolivar Department, Cartagena
(Garzón-Ferreira et al. 2000).
Bay, Cienaga de la Virgen and Cienaga de Tesca, mangrove productivity
has been reduced as their growth is stunted by hydrocarbons and other
In Cartagena Bay and the Ciénaga de Tesca in Colombia, mass fi sh mor-
chemical impurities (Direccion de Ecosistemas 2002a).
talities were observed due to the water being deoxygenated. This was
attributed to eutrophication caused by the discharge of non-treated
Marine pollution exists in the principal ports of the sub-system, such
wastewater and fertiliser runoff , combined with the stratifi cation of the
as Cartagena, where sea sediments retain heavy metals like copper,
water column (PNUMA 1999). Branches of Canal del Dique, especially
cadmium, chromium, lead, zinc and mercury which have accumulated
the canals that enter Bahia de Cartagena and Bahía de Barbacoas, are
as result of previous activities and discharges. Marine activities, nota-
turbid and suff er from eutrophication, and consequently degrade coral
bly dredging in ports, disturb the polluted sediments so that they are
reefs at Islas del Rosario (Garzón-Ferreira et al. 2000).
suspended in the water column where they are ingested by marine
organisms, such as molluscs, and then passed through the food chain.
Chemical Pollution
There are moderate impacts from chemical pollution in the Colombia
Suspended Solids
& Venezuela sub-system. There is currently a lack of studies regarding
The impacts from suspended solids were considered to be moderate as
the aff ects of chemical pollution on the aquatic environment, especially
the sediment loads of water bodies have increased due to the expan-
given the large presence of industry on the banks of the sub-system's
sion of activities such as deforestation, mining and agriculture in the
rivers (Ruiz et al. 1992; CORMAGDALENA 2002). Pesticides are used for
catchment areas. According to Garzón-Ferreira (2000), the increase in
fi shing and agriculture in large quantities within the three transbound-
sedimentation is the most damaging issue for many coastal areas in the
30
GIWA REGIONAL ASSESSMENT 3B, 3C CARIBBEAN SEA/COLOMBIA & VENEZUELA, CARIBBEAN SEA/CENTRAL AMERICA & MEXICO
sub-system; in particular, Santa Marta in the Colombian Caribbean and
Oil spills
Morrocoy National park in Venezuela. Deforestation, for logging and
The impact of oil spills is severe as there is widespread and frequent
land clearance for agriculture, is the major cause of sedimentation and
contamination by hazardous spills which degrade aquatic ecosystems
nutrient pollution in most of the aff ected areas.
and aff ect fi shing and coastal recreational activities in the surrounding
area. Previous spills have caused signifi cant mortality of aquatic and
The Magdalena discharges 235x 106 t/a of sediment into the Caribbean
avian species with many contaminated carcasses observed on beaches.
Sea (Quintero 1999), the Orinoco 85 x 106 t/a, and other rivers in Colom-
Additionally, oil is continuously discharged by port and shipping activi-
bia & Venezuela, 50 x 106 t/a. In the Magdalena Basin, between Barba-
ties. In Cartagena Bay (Colombia), petroleum exploration, extraction,
coas and Bocacerrada, sedimentation is changing the hydrological re-
refi nement and spills from ships represent 80% of the total petroleum
gime of the area by, for example, obstructing the fl ow of canals such as
discharged in the region (INVEMAR 2001).
the Canal del Dique. Mangroves are, consequently, receiving less water
and many have died (Direccion de Ecosistemas 2002a). The coastal zone
Oil can also be released into the environment because of vandalism
adjacent to the mouth of the Magdalena River receives sediments from
to oil pipelines. In the Catatumbo River Basin there are continuous oil
the river that are transported by currents and the tides until they are
spills as a result of pipeline sabotage. In November 2002, 5 000 barrels
deposited to form fi ne mud beaches. The coral reefs located in close
were spilled after an explosion at the border between Colombia and
proximity to the mouth of the Magdalena are being impacted by sedi-
the Zulia State in Venezuela (Rosillon 2002).
mentation as a consequence of these additional sediments.
In the Venezuelan portion of the Orinoco Basin, oil drilling leaves oil and
Gomez (1996) calculated that the Orinoco River discharges 2.5 x 1012
other residues that leach into the surrounding mangrove ecosystems.
g C/year of dissolved organic material and large quantities of sus-
Pollutants from oil exploitation activities in the basin include hydrocar-
pended (80 mg/l) and dissolved solids (34 mg/l) (Blough et al. 1993 in
bons; wastewater containing detergents; gases from valves and burners
Gomez 1996). A major environmental threat to the Orinoco Basin is that
(hydrocarbons, hydrogen sulphide); fi re extinguisher agents (halogen-
dredged wastes are piled on riverbanks where they inhibit drainage into
ated gases, treated water); wastewater from employee camps; chemical
the rivers. Seasonal changes to the volume of outfl ow from the Orinoco
products (cement, bentonite, barite, solvents, heavy metals, alkalis); anti-
River infl uences the concentrations of silicates and dissolved organic
foaming agents; radioactive isotopes; battery acid; lubricants (grease);
substances in the north Venezuelan coastal waters (Gomez 1996). Satel-
pH salts; biocides; oil; and mineral oil. The longitudinal distribution of
lite images have shown that sediments from the Orinoco River can be
aliphatic hydrocarbons, oils and grease in superfi cial sediments within
seen several kilometres off shore.
the Orinoco Basin shows a maximum concentration at Sidor (1.3 mg/g)
and Aguas Calientes (0.8 mg/g) (Senior et al. 1999). The likelihood of oil
Solid Wastes
spills from dilapidated pipelines is extremely high and poses a serious
There have been moderate impacts from the issue of solid wastes result-
threat to the Orinoco delta region. Further, the oil developments alter
ing from the inadequacies of collection services for solid wastes in the
the basin's drainage patterns and inhibit the fl ow of freshwater and tidal
coastal settlements of the sub-system. The management of waste from
seawater to the mangrove forests (RAN 2003).
the tourism sector is particularly weak. For example, Morrocoy National
Park, Venezuela, was temporarily closed in 1990 following the dumping
Economic impacts
of excessive quantities of solid and liquid wastes when the number of
Pollution has caused moderate economic impacts in the Colombia &
tourists exceeded the carrying capacity of waste management services
Venezuela sub-system. The sewage system of the cities of Barranquilla
(Windevoxhel 2003).
and Cartagena, as with many municipalities in the basin, is completely
dependent on the Magdalena River and the Canal del Dique to dispose
Studies in Colombia have recorded signifi cant quantities of debris fl oat-
of its wastewater. The downstream section of the Magdalena River, par-
ing in coastal waters. There is evidence of sea turtle mortality due to the
ticularly at its mouth, is highly polluted; greater investment in treatment
ingestion of plastic bags as they resemble jellyfi sh. Of 33 dead Leath-
services is needed. The value of fi sheries products has decreased as a
erbacks found between 1979 and 1988 ten died from ingesting plastic
result of contamination by hydrocarbons and runoff from the munici-
bags, plastic sheets or monofi laments (Direccion de Ecosistemas 2002b,
palities of Cicuco and Talaiga Nuevo (Gonzalez José pers. comm.).
Kemp 2004, Turtle 2004). Coral reefs have also been damaged by the
dumping of large debris at sea (RAN 2003).
ASSESSMENT
31
Magdalena River is a key transport route for the importing and export-
ties including the production of illegal crops, livestock farming and oil
ing of industrial products. In order to maintain this navigational func-
spills. Pollution is impacting human health and increasing the costs of
tion, it is necessary to regularly stabilise and dredge the river course
water treatment.
due to high sedimentation rates. In 2000 and 2001, an estimated 80 000
million pesos (45.5 million USD) were used for these activities in Barran-
The environmental impacts of pollution are expected to decrease in
quilla (Alcaldía Distrital de Barranquilla 1999, República de Colombia
severity by the year 2020, from moderate to slight. In future the eco-
2001). The additional sediments deposited on the beaches adjacent
nomic impacts are predicted to remain unchanged while impacts on
to the mouth of the Magdalena River have detracted from the value of
the health and social wellbeing of the sub-system's population will de-
the beaches for tourism, as have solids wastes also discharged by the
crease from moderate to slight (Annex II, Scoring tables).
rivers and deposited on the beaches by coastal currents. The impact
of pollution, however, on the economic sectors of the region has not
been fully evaluated.
T
C
A
Habitat and community
IMP
Impacts on human health
modification
The impact of pollution on human health is also moderate in the sub-
system. Many households in the Magdalena Basin are not connected
The environmental impacts of habitat modifi cation in the Colombia &
to the water supply system; relying, instead, on water trucks, rainwater
Venezuela sub-system are severe while the socio-economic impacts were
or river water. This primarily aff ects low income inhabitants. Most of the
classifi ed as slight to moderate (Annex II, Scoring tables). In the coastal
communities in the lower reaches of the Magdalena River Basin do not
zone, mangroves and coral reef ecosystems have been signifi cantly
have sewage treatment facilities and, consequently, suspended solids
modifi ed as a result of pollution, poor land use practices and uncon-
and faecal matter detrimentally aff ect the health of downstream coastal
trolled fi shing. In the continental portion of the sub-system, especially
communities which have a high prevalence of gastrointestinal and der-
in Colombia, the government supported development of settlements
mal ailments. Chemical and organic compounds released into the en-
along the rivers during the 1970s has caused extensive deforestation.
vironment by industrial and agricultural activities present a permanent
threat to human health (DNP 1995). In the Magdalena Basin, morbidity
Loss of ecosystems
from digestive diseases was 21.4 per 1000 inhabitants and from skin
The loss of ecosystems is assessed as having slight impacts. The most se-
diseases, 17.6 per 1000 inhabitants (Mesclier 1999).
vere ecosystem loss was witnessed in the Magdalena River Delta where
many mangroves surrounding Barranquilla-Cienaga, Parque Salamanca
Other social and community impacts
and the Cienaga Grande de Santa Marta were destroyed. Approximately
The social and community impacts of pollution are moderate. Rural
95% of the mangroves (280 km2) were lost due to changes in the hydro-
populations are the most vulnerable to the impacts of pollution due
logical regime including increased salinisation. In 1999, increased salin-
to the inaccessibility of treated water sources. Less than 42% of rural in-
ity levels have resulted in a sharp decline in mollusc populations which
habitants are connected to the water supply system and only 17% to a
were previously a major economic resource in the Delta. For the last 30
sewage system (CORMAGDALENA 2002).
years, to the west of Parque Salamanca, there has been mangrove de-
forestation for charcoal production by settlers of Barranquilla and Sitio
Conclusions and future outlook of pollution
Nuevo (INVEMAR 2001). Mangroves have also been cleared due to tour-
In the Colombia & Venezuela sub-system, the impacts from pollution
ism development in the Magdalena Basin between Cartagena's airport
are generally moderate. The major sources of pollution were identifi ed
and la Boquilla, as well as in Islas de Baru and Islas del Rosario.
as oil spills and suspended solids. In the Catatumbo and Magdalena river
basins, waste management services are weak resulting in the discharge
Modification of ecosystems
of untreated or insuffi
ciently treated wastewater and the uncontrolled
Habitat modifi cation is considered severe as the sub-system's physical,
dumping of solid wastes. Oil pipelines are prone to fracturing, result-
chemical and biological characteristics have been signifi cantly altered
ing in frequent leaks and spills. Land management practices, such as
to the detriment of its ecosystems. In the middle and lower reaches of
deforestation, have increased the sediment loads of water bodies. The
the Magdalena River Basin, ecosystems have been modifi ed, particu-
application of agro-chemicals has increased contamination from ag-
larly wetlands, in terms of vegetation cover, species distribution and
ricultural runoff . The Orinoco Basin is polluted by a variety of activi-
biodiversity (Villa 1998, CORMAGDALENA 1999). This has been attrib-
32
GIWA REGIONAL ASSESSMENT 3B, 3C CARIBBEAN SEA/COLOMBIA & VENEZUELA, CARIBBEAN SEA/CENTRAL AMERICA & MEXICO
uted to the artifi cial control of the fl oodplain hydrodynamics, the per-
dance and diversity of wetland species are under threat. The remaining
vasiveness of pollution, widespread urbanization and the dredging and
wetlands are under pressure to be utilised by human activities.
extraction of sediments. Moreover, alien species were introduced. For
example, tilapia (Oreochromis mossambicus) were introduced into the
The wetlands of the Magdalena Basin have experienced two main im-
Magdalena Basin and Lake Maracaibo (INDEC 1971, MMA-IAVH 1999,
pacts: (i) the total transformation or loss of biological, chemical and
Alvarado & Gutierrez 2002).
physical attributes including the function of ecosystems (e.g. space rec-
lamation, alien species); and (ii) severe transformation which consists of
CORMAGDALENA (2002) noted that 86% of the total mangrove area in
the modifi cation of one of those attributes (e.g. urbanization, control
the Magdalena Basin has been altered by human activities. Colombia
of inundation, pollution) (MMA-IAVH 1999). A wetland assessment of
is no longer the country with the fourth largest total mangrove cover
Colombia found that the most severely aff ected habitats are located in
in the world (as catalogued in 1956) (CORMAGDALENA 2002). The most
the Magdalena Basin (west, middle, lower), Sinu River, Cauca River, Canal
extreme impacts in the Magdalena River Delta were concentrated in
del Dique and Depresión Momposina. The Colombian government has
Cienaga Grande de Santa Marta and Isla de Salamanca, attributed to
recognised wetlands as a priority for conservation and has recently cre-
the blockage of canals that convey freshwater from various rivers; the
ated a wetland policy (MMA 2002).
obstruction of the fl ux between the marshes and sea due to the con-
struction of roads at Cienaga-Barranquilla and Palermo-Sitio Nuevo; and
Coastal and riparian development over the last few centuries has altered
the construction of fl ood defences to protect livestock farms. This has
runoff and caused sedimentation which has degraded coral reef eco-
resulted in the drying up of fl oodplains and hypersaline soils of up to
systems. During the 17th century, Spanish colonists excavated the Canal
300. There are also reports of sedimentation in this area due to defor-
del Dique, changing the course of the Magdalena River so that it fl ows
estation. In the north of the Magdalena River Delta, road construction
into Cartagena Bay and forms an estuary, thereby eliminating extensive
has modifi ed runoff and caused the salinisation of water and soil, result-
coral communities. Major reef degradation has occurred on the Carib-
ing in mangrove mortality. In Barbacoas and Canal del Dique, increased
bean coast including remote continental and oceanic reef areas, as well
salinity levels and the exploitation of mangrove products has led to the
as reefs near urban centres. Figure 7 shows the status of coral reefs in
colonisation of glycophyts (Direccion de Ecosistemas 2002a). Further, on
the Caribbean Sea region.
the west coast of Golfo de Uraba,
Turks & Caicos Islands
the mollusc Neoteredo reynei have
attacked mangroves such as Rhizo-
Mexico
phora mangle by perforating man-
Cayman Islands
Anguilla
British Virgin Islands
grove branches and causing them
Virgin Islands (US)
Belize
to fall (Direccion de Ecosistemas
Antigua & Barbuda
2002a).
Guadeloupe
Guatemala
Dominica
Honduras
Martinique
The wetlands on the Caribbean
St. Lucia
coast of Colombia provide habitat
Barbados
Nicaragua
Aruba
Grenada
for rare, endangered and commer-
Netherlands Antilles
cially or recreationally important
Trinidad & Tobago
wildlife species. They also serve as
Costa Rica
focal areas for outdoor recreation
Panama
and provide an important function
Venezuela
in enhancing water quality, fl ood-
water storage, storm surge reduc-
tion and groundwater recharge
Reefs at risk
Colombia
(Tiner 1984 in Lyon & McCarthy
High
Medium
1995). However, most of the wet-
Low
© GIWA 2006
lands are impacted by anthropo-
Figure 7
Status of coral reefs in the Caribbean Sea region.
genic activities; today, the abun-
Source: Byant el al. 1998.
ASSESSMENT
33
Coral reef degradation has been exacerbated by urban and industrial
impacts include a loss of territorial rights; the modifi cation and loss of
development on the central coast of Venezuela (Puerto Francés-Caren-
delta ecosystems that provide their means of subsistence; erosion of
ero) where over 80% of associated invertebrate species have disap-
traditional knowledge and skills; and a loss of cultural values due to the
peared since the mid-1980s. In Morrocoy National Park, coral reefs and
dispersion of indigenous communities.
associated faunal communities have been destroyed; with coral cover
reduced from 43% to less than 5% between 1990 and 1996. This mass
Conclusions and future outlook of habitat modi-
mortality was attributed to a climatic anomaly that resulted in a prolifi c
fication
phytoplankton bloom followed by severe oxygen depletion, but also
The environmental and economic impacts of habitat modifi cation were
chemical pollution (Garzón-Ferreira et al. 2000). Deep coral communi-
both assessed as moderate. The fi sheries and transport sectors have
ties in Colombia are threatened by the development of new fi shing
been the most aff ected. Signifi cant costs have been incurred, and will
technologies and the expansion of oil and gas exploration (Santodo-
continue to be necessary in future, in restoring the degraded habitats.
mingo et al. 2004).
There is limited evidence of impacts to human health but the social and
cultural integrity of the Warao indigenous people in the Orinoco Basin
In the Orinoco River Delta, oil pollution has changed the pH of the soils
has been adversely aff ected.
and water, causing a severe deterioration in the health of the man-
groves. For example, mature trees are prevented from growing suffi
-
By 2020, the habitat modifi cation concern will continue to have moder-
cient foliage for photosynthesis (RAN 2003).
ate environmental impacts but if no action is taken the impacts may
become severe. It is necessary to assess the environmental costs and
Economic impacts
benefi ts of economic activities and promote sustainable development
The economic impacts of habitat modifi cation are moderate; there has
in order to limit habitat modifi cation caused by economic develop-
been a loss of ecosystem functions and a reduction in environmental
ment. Overall, it is anticipated that there will be little change in the
services. The environmental problems of the region require large fi nan-
severity of impacts from habitat modifi cation on the economy of the
cial investment in order to reverse degradation trends (República de
sub-system.
Venezuela 1995). The natural resources of the Orinoco, Magdalena and
Catatumbo basins have been exploited in an unsustainable manner.
These economic resources will not be available for future generations.
T
C
A
Unsustainable exploitation of
IMP
Impacts on human health
fish and other living resources
The impacts of habitat modifi cation on human health are slight. Altera-
tions to the Colombia & Venezuela sub-system's aquatic ecosystems
The environmental impact of the unsustainable exploitation of fi sh and
have exacerbated poverty, as food security has been jeopardised. In the
other living resources in the Colombia & Venezuela sub-system was
Magdalena Basin, the quality of fi sheries products has been diminished,
considered to be moderate, while the socio-economic impacts range
due to the bio-accumulation of heavy metals in the tissues of fi sh until
from slight to severe (Annex II, Scoring tables).
they become toxic to humans. However, mining activities are currently
not suffi
ciently regulated to prevent such contamination. Additionally,
Overexploitation is the major issue both for marine and freshwater fi sh-
overfi shing has aff ected the future abundance and food security of fi sh-
eries. Fishing in the river basins is an important economic activity for
ing communities (CORMAGDALENA 1999).
riparian communities for subsistence and to supply the domestic mar-
ket. The assessment of this concern is restricted by the lack of reliable
Other social and community impacts
fi sheries data for the region (UNEP 2000b).
The impacts on other social and community issues from habitat modi-
fi cation were assessed as moderate, because the lifestyle of the popu-
Overexploitation
lation of the Magdalena Basin has gradually changed as a result of
The overexploitation of the fi sheries is having severe impacts. The as-
modifi cations to the sub-system's habitats. The Warao, the indigenous
sessment of this issue is based primarily on studies of the Magdalena
people of the Orinoco Basin, have dwelled in the basin for the past 3
Basin and the adjacent coastal areas.
000 years but are now suff ering due to the destruction of the habitat
on which they depend for their livelihood. The social and community
34
GIWA REGIONAL ASSESSMENT 3B, 3C CARIBBEAN SEA/COLOMBIA & VENEZUELA, CARIBBEAN SEA/CENTRAL AMERICA & MEXICO
Data on the health and abundance of the reef fi sheries is extremely
Overexploitation is also aff ecting freshwater ecosystems. For example,
scarce for the sub-system. The general consensus is that coral reef fi sh
landings of Prochilodus magdalenae ("Bocachico") have signifi cantly de-
communities have been changed markedly and populations of im-
creased in the Magdalena Basin; as shown in fi gure 8. Wetland wildlife is
portant commercial species are severely depleted. These changes are
also overexploited for consumption, their skins and trade in live species.
probably caused by reef degradation in combination with overfi shing.
Recent fi sh counts by the SIMAC (Sistema de Monitoreo de Arrecifes
Excessive by-catch and discards
Coralinos de Colombia) monitoring programme of Caribbean reefs in
In general, the impact of excessive by-catch and discards is considered
Colombia showed that some commercial species, such as snappers and
as slight. In Colombia there is accidental by-catch of sea turtles by shrimp
groupers, were absent or had population densities less than 1 fi sh per
fi sheries, whereas in Venezuela it is regulated.
60 m2 (Garzon-Ferreira et al. 2000). Fish stocks of the main commercial
species have been depleted throughout the sub-system. These species
Destructive fishing practices
include Acanthuridae, Balistidae, Carangidae, Chaetodontenidae, Haemuli-
The use of destructive fi shing practices is having moderate impacts as
dade, Kyphosidae, Labridae, Ltjanidade, Pomacanthidae, Pomacentridae,
there is evidence of dynamite fi shing in all the basins, which is adversely
Scaridae, Serranidae (Garzón-Ferreira et al. 2000).
aff ecting the sustainability of the fi sheries (Mojica et al. 2002, Mejia &
Acero 2002).
The fi shing of lobster and gastropods (Strombus gigas) along the Colom-
bian Caribbean coast became unsustainable many years ago; their ex-
Coral and fi sh exploitation practices used by subsistence and commer-
ploitation is now restricted to La Guajira. Lobster exploitation between
cial fi sheries are threatening coral reefs in coastal areas. Fishing with
1989 and 2000 was approximately 327-356 tonnes per year. The har-
dynamite and anchoring on coral reefs in Morrosquillo Gulf, San An-
vesting of Strombus gigas, which is listed in CITES Appendix II, between
dres, Providencia and Islas del Rosario, have caused coral mortality and
1994 and 1999 was about 121129 tonnes per year, while in 2000 it was
negatively aff ected associated species e.g. carey and caguama turtles
74 tonnes (INVEMAR 2001).
(Direccion de Ecosistemas 2002b).
The hunting of marine turtles in Colombia in nesting and feeding areas
Decreased viability of stock through pollution
is the principal threat to their conservation. In La Guajira alone, there are
and disease
more than 2000 individuals caught per year by traditional turtle fi shing.
The impact of decreased viability of stocks though contamination and
The continuous killing of female loggerhead turtles (Caretta caretta) and
disease is considered as slight. This score considers that there is some
the poaching of their eggs reduced their population by 95% between
evidence of impacts on various species but this has not been substan-
1976 and 1987. At present, there are a few nesting reports in Santa Marta,
tiated scientifi cally. For example, the accumulation of pesticides and
Dibulla and La Guajira. Other species that used to nest on the coast
chemical pollutants on Colombian beaches in the Caribbean produce
of the Magdalena Basin in departments such as Buritaca-Don Diego,
lixiviates that suff ocate nesting sea turtles and kill their embryos (Direc-
were almost exterminated. Since 1973, only two white turtles (Chelonia
cion de Ecosistemas 2002b).
mydas) were registered, two nests of carey turtle (Eretmochelus imbri-
cata) and one nest of a canal turtle (Dermochelys coriacea) (Direccion
Impact on biological and genetic diversity
de Ecosistemas 2002b).
The impact on biological and genetic diversity was considered moder-
ate because all the basins are impacted by alien species. However, data
90©000
80©000
on the severity of its impacts is scarce. Oreochromis mossambicus was
70©000
introduced into the Magdalena Basin and has changed the structure of
60©000
onnes) 50©000
the fi sh community (Alvarado & Gutierrez 2002). At Cienaga Grande de
©(t 40©000
h
Santa Marta and Complejo de Pajarales in the Colombian Caribbean, fi sh
30©000
Catc 20©000
catch composition changed in 2001 due to changes in wetland condi-
10©000
0
tions. For example Mojarra lora changed from representing 67% of the
1970
1972
1974
1976
1978
1981
1983
1985
1987
1989
1991
1993
1995
1997
1999
2000
total catch to 1% during the fi rst six months of the year; while euriha-
Year
line species increased from 4% to 38% of the total catch. Among the
Figure 8
Prochilodus magdalenae ("Bocachico") catches
traditional species only Lisa (Mugil incilis) and mojarra rayada (Eugerres
(1970 2000).
(Source: Rengifo et al., 2002)
ASSESSMENT
35
plumieri) retained their proportion of total catch but with less abun-
having the most infl uence out the global change issues in the Colombia
dance (INVEMAR 2001).
& Venezuela sub-system. The frequency of hurricanes in the Caribbean
Sea has increased, causing longer and more frequent rainy periods.
Economic impacts
The economic impacts of the unsustainable exploitation of fi sh and
Changes in hydrological cycle and ocean circula-
other living resources were assessed as moderate. In the Magdalena
tion
Basin the impacts of this concern are most pronounced. During the
The environmental impacts of changes in the hydrological cycle and
last 22 years, fi sheries production in the basin has reduced from 22 000
ocean circulation are moderate. This score is based principally on infor-
tonnes per year in 1977 to 7 562 tonnes per year in 1988, with landings
mation from Colombia, published in the First National Communication
decreasing by almost 90% between 1977 and 1995 (INAP 1996). The
for the Climate Change Convention. According to INVEMAR (2002), the
income of fi shers has, consequently, fallen.
most vulnerable municipalities to climate change are the coastal cities
of Cartagena, Barranquilla and Santa Marta, which already experience
Impacts on human health
recurrent and persistent natural hazards, such as tropical storms, heavy
The impact of this concern on human health is considered to be slight.
rain, hurricanes and storm surges.
The overexploitation of fi sheries resources is threatening the food se-
curity of fi shers and their families (CORMAGDALENA 1999).
Although there has been some data collected on the occurrence of
coral bleaching events, the impacts of climate change are insuffi
ciently
Other social and community impacts
assessed. All bleaching events coincide with elevated sea surface tem-
This concern is causing moderate social and community impacts. Fish-
peratures, which may be linked with global climate change. On the
ers are among the most vulnerable to food insecurity.
Caribbean coast of Colombia the most severe bleaching occurred dur-
ing an ENSO event in 1982/83 when there was severe coral mortality at
Conclusions and future outlook
several localities, but unfortunately this event was poorly documented
The environmental impact of the unsustainable exploitation of fi sh and
(Garzón-Ferreira et al. 2000). There is evidence that the ENSO can af-
other living resources in the Colombia & Venezuela sub-system was as-
fect fi sheries productivity in the Caribbean coastal waters of Colombia;
sessed as moderate. The overexploitation of the fi sheries is having severe
6500 tonnes of crustaceans and 1000 tonnes of molluscs were caught
impacts on the ecology of the sub-system. In the Magdalena River Basin,
in 1991, whereas in 1993 catches of crustaceans were 2000 tonnes and
both freshwater and marine commercial fi sh stocks are signifi cantly de-
of molluscs 500 tonnes, and in 1997, 2000 tonnes of crustaceans and
pleted. The "Bocachico" (Prochilodus magdalenae) fi sh is seriously threat-
only 100 tonnes of molluscs were caught (INVEMAR 2001). At Morrocoy
ened due to overexploitation (Rengifo et al. 2002) and environmental
National Park in Venezuela, chemical pollution in conjunction with a
changes in the Magdalena River Basin (Mojica et al. 2002). The fi sher-
climatic and oceanographic anomaly resulted in a severe phytoplank-
ies industry is facing continued economic hardship due to declining
ton bloom followed by sudden oxygen depletion, which reduced coral
catches, which is also jeopardising the food security of fi shing commu-
reef cover from 43% to less than 5% between 1991 and 1996 (Garzón-
nities and preventing fi shers from satisfying their basic needs.
Ferreira et al. 2000).
By 2020, the situation is expected to improve due to growing public
Sea Level Change
awareness of environmental issues, the fulfi lment of environmental
The impacts of sea level change are slight. It is evident that a rise in sea
regulations and the provision of economic incentives for conservation
level will aff ect coastal ecosystems and modify the biodiversity of ter-
and sustainable use.
restrial and marine ecosystems as a result of various impacts, such as
fl ooding, changes in sea depth, soil salinisation and higher erosion rates.
Knowledge of marine and coastal ecosystems is defi cient and their ad-
aptation capacity and succession features in response to sea level rise
T
C
A
Global change
IMP
are yet to be determined. Sea level rise will be an additional threat for
coral reef ecosystems which are already vulnerable (INVEMAR 2002).
The environmental impacts of global change were assessed as moderate
and the socio-economic impacts range from slight to severe (Annex II,
Scoring tables). Changes in the hydrological cycle and sea level rise are
36
GIWA REGIONAL ASSESSMENT 3B, 3C CARIBBEAN SEA/COLOMBIA & VENEZUELA, CARIBBEAN SEA/CENTRAL AMERICA & MEXICO
Increased UV-b radiation as a result of ozone
IPCC has identifi ed Venezuela as being exposed to extreme phenomena
depletion
or events. For example, fl oods are becoming more severe as a result of
Increased UV-b radiation as a result of ozone depletion is considered to
climate change and are extremely hazardous for coastal and riparian
have slight impacts. There is a dearth of information on this issue and
populations (Székely-Taller 2000). Venezuela is considered to have one
more studies are needed to determine its impacts.
of the highest prevalence rates of diseases and infections caused by
the fungus Paracoccidiodes brasiliensis, which is expected to increase as
Changes in ocean CO source/sink function
a result of climate change.
2
Changes in the ocean CO source/sink function were assessed to have
2
slight impacts. Again, there is a lack of information in order to fully as-
Other social or community impacts
sess this issue. Nutrients discharged in river plumes, such as from the
The impact of global change on other social and community issues
Orinoco River, have increased in concentration, thus increasing primary
was assessed as moderate, taking into account the size of the aff ected
productivity and, therefore, carbon drawdown in the coastal waters of
population and their vulnerability due to poverty. About 62% of the in-
the sub-system (Corredor & Morell 2001).
habitants of the Magdalena Basin do not satisfy their basic needs. The
precarious location of many poverty stricken communities on steep
Economic impacts
slopes or fl oodplains in Venezuela exacerbates the impact of extreme
The economic impacts of this concern were assessed as moderate. A
events which are likely to intensify in future due to global climate
vulnerability analysis of Colombia (INVEMAR 2003b) revealed that 2%
change (Székely-Taller 2000).
of the national population is settled in lowland areas that are at risk of
sea level rise and more than 60% of this population is located in the
Conclusions and future outlook
Magdalena Basin. Additionally, the major urban areas of the sub-system
The impact of the global change concern was assessed as moderate.
are located along the Caribbean coast and are highly exposed to natural
The assessment outlined the impact of ENSO events and the possible
hazards such as tropical storms and storm surges which are expected
eff ects of sea level rise and changes in water tables, but more data is
to increase in frequency and severity in response to global climate
required in order to enhance the accuracy of future predictions. Global
change. In Venezuela, most economic activities are located along the
climate change may have other eff ects on natural resources which are
coast. Coastline retreat has already been observed on the western coast
yet to be determined.
of Lake Maracaibo at a rate of 8 cm per year, partially due to petroleum
extraction. This retreat is putting at risk the petroleum industry, the as-
The economic, health, and social and community impacts were all as-
sociated investment and the coastal population. Coastal erosion from
sessed as moderate. This is based on the vulnerability of the population,
a rise in sea level of 2 to 10 cm per decade will also threaten economic
industries and infrastructure which are concentrated in coastal areas
activities (Hutme & Sheard 1999).
prone to sea-level rise, fl ooding and storm activity. Climate change is
also expected to increase the prevalence of dengue and other illnesses,
Impacts on human health
particularly in communities suff ering from poverty.
The impact on human health from global changes is considered as
moderate. It is estimated that 2% of the Colombian population living
In future, the situation is not expected to deteriorate as the cities most
on the coast could be aff ected by saline intrusion in aquifers due to
vulnerable to climate change are developing protection strategies. The
sea level rise. In 1997, an offi
cial Colombian survey estimated that 11.5%
cost of defending the sub-system from climate changes will increase
of households rely on groundwater resources that are likely to become
signifi cantly but the impacts are likely to be controlled. Saline intrusion
aff ected by salinisation.
could be mitigated through investment in alternative freshwater sup-
plies, as is already being developed in Colombia. However, it expected
Higher temperatures are increasing the vulnerability of some Colom-
that inhabitants of the most aff ected areas will be forced to migrate
bian municipalities to dengue fever (IDEAM 2001). In Colombia there are
which may stimulate social unrest in other areas of the sub-system. It is
already 60 000 cases of dengue fever and 70 000 cases of malaria every
important that precautionary measures are implemented in the short-
year, with 70% of the population residing in areas at risk of dengue and
term in order to respond adequately to the anticipated environmental
80% at risk of malaria (CORMAGDALENA 2002).
changes.
ASSESSMENT
37
Assessment of the Central America &
Mexico sub-system
T
C
A
Freshwater shortage
IMP
The environmental impacts of freshwater shortage in the Central Amer-
ing to the GEO 3 report (UNEP 2002), a quarter of the total population
ica & Mexico sub-system were assessed overall to be moderate and the
will have an insuffi
cient water supply by 2025 due to overabstraction.
socio-economic impacts range from slight to severe (Annex II). In agree-
Most of the rain in Mexico falls during four months of the year and 50%
ment with the report of CATHALAC (1999), there is a lack of information
of water runoff comes from the southeast and the coasts of the terri-
regarding the impact of pollution on freshwater supplies and about the
tory. Water is, therefore, not always available or distributed when and
infl uence of increased water demand for agriculture, tourism and hydro-
where it is most needed.
electric generation on the future availability of water.
Pollution of existing supplies
Due to the irregular distribution of water resources in Central America,
The pollution of existing supplies is having moderate impacts. Accord-
many people do not have ready access to a source of water supply.
ing to the Vision on Water, Life and the Environment for the 21st Century
In fact, at the beginning of the 21st century, 15 million people did not
by CATHALAC (1999), water quality is only controlled in less than 5% of
have an adequate water supply (Tribunal Latino Americano del Agua
rural water supply systems in Central America. As a consequence, 20
2003). Despite some country initiatives to improve water management
million Central Americans consume water of questionable quality. In
and reduce pollution loads in the sub-system, the pollution of fresh-
Panama, only 35% of the rural population has access to treated water
water supplies remains a major problem. Nearly 60% of the freshwater
(Robles 1992). More than 79% of sewage water in Central America is
resources in Central America are located in transboundary watersheds
released into water bodies without any treatment and less than 5% of
- Hondo River, Belize River, Moho River, Temash River, Sarstoon River,
the drinking water is treated (CCAD 1998 in CATHALAC 1999). It is esti-
Changuinola River, Coco River, Motagua River, San Juan River, Sixaola
mated that the Central American region produces over 19 000 metric
River and Panama Canal (CATHALAC 1999).
tonnes of waste daily, of which only 50% is collected; the rest is dumped
haphazardly and contaminates water bodies including rivers, lagoons,
Modification of stream flow
bays or coasts. Groundwater, which supplies a large proportion of urban
The modifi cation of stream fl ow is severe in the sub-system. The report
centres, is increasingly contaminated due to the inadequate disposal
of CATHALAC (1999), states that scarcity and excess of water are two
of domestic and industrial wastewater. Water supplies are also being
of the most limiting factors of soil productivity in the sub-system. Ap-
polluted by nitrates and bacteria originating from septic tanks (CCAD
proximately 30% of the more fertile soils are facing these problems.
1998 in CATHALAC 1999).
More than 50% of the energy produced in Central America is gener-
ated by hydropower (UNEP 2000b). Hydroelectric facilities installed in
Despite relatively abundant water resources, Costa Rica is often unable
the south of the sub-system are modifying the river fl ow regime. Even
to satisfy demand for potable water in urban centres, partially due to
though the south is more aff ected than the north, the impact of these
water pollution. The proportion of domestic and industrial wastewater
facilities infl uences the whole region.
treated in Costa Rica is one of the lowest in Latin America. Additionally,
77% is treated in septic tanks and cesspools which use chemicals which
In Guatemala, freshwater is abstracted predominantly from surface
degrade aquifers. Moreover, 80% of the national water supply systems
supplies (70% in urban areas and 90% in rural areas). Irrigation systems
lack permanent disinfection systems. The salinisation of aquifers is com-
operated by the State use between 3 and 140 million m3 per year, but
monly associated with tourism developments (Costa Rica 2001).
there is no available information for private operators. In some areas
of the country, there are signifi cant defi ciencies in natural and treated
In Mexico, tourism generates large quantities of wastewater, the man-
water supplies, which invoke confl ict between irrigation users (FAO
agement of which has become problematic. It is often discharged di-
2000). In Costa Rica, 75% of freshwater resources were catalogued as
rectly into lagoons and bays such as Chetumal Bay and Nitchupé La-
highly vulnerable in 2001, especially surface and spring waters. Accord-
goon in Cancun. There is data confi rming that temperature, fl oating
38
GIWA REGIONAL ASSESSMENT 3B, 3C CARIBBEAN SEA/COLOMBIA & VENEZUELA, CARIBBEAN SEA/CENTRAL AMERICA & MEXICO
solids and phosphorus are at or below permitted levels, but grease, oil,
Other social and community impacts
total suspended solids, BOD and faecal coliforms are above. The qual-
Other social and community impacts of freshwater shortage are con-
ity of water for recreational activities is not optimal. In Chetumal Bay,
sidered as severe. There is a growing imbalance between water demand
water supply quality has deteriorated due to contamination by heavy
and availability in Costa Rica resulting in frequent freshwater shortages.
metals, organoclorides and faecal coliforms. In a few years, Chetumal
This is provoking confl ict between water users (Costa Rica 2001). Fresh-
Bay is predicted to be highly polluted with grave consequences for
water shortages are often the result of supplies being polluted.
human health.
Conclusions and future outlook
Further, the uncontrolled use of pesticides and fertilizers in Central
Overall, the freshwater shortage concern was assessed as having mod-
America has become a major source of pollution. It is transported by
erate impacts in the Central America & Mexico sub-system. The modifi -
surface runoff from agricultural areas, mainly in areas of intensive farm-
cation of stream fl ow and the pollution of supplies are the most severe
ing, into freshwater supplies (CATHALAC 1999).
issues. The impact of the concern on the economy and health of the
sub-system was regarded as moderate, while there are severe other so-
Changes in the water table
cial and community impacts. These scores are justifi ed by the disequi-
Based on evidence that several wells have experienced salinisation as a
libria between water availability and demand, the prevalence of dis-
result of aquifer drawdown, changes in the water table were assessed
eases transmitted via untreated water and the provocation of confl icts
as slight. Groundwater is overexploited to satisfy urban, industrial and
among water users during periods of water scarcity.
irrigation demand. In Mexico, aquifers are also overexploited, despite
abundant water availability of about 4 977 m3 per person, which is high
The situation is unlikely to improve in future as population growth and
in comparison with countries of Europe. One third of the total water
economic development will continue to increase the demand for water.
exploitation in Mexico comes from groundwater. In Quintana Roo, the
Some countries in the sub-system are developing, or have developed,
volume of water extracted is twice the recharge rate capacity. There
freshwater management strategies as a national priority.
is evidence of changes in the water fl ow in the phreatic layer at Río
Hondo and Chetumal Bay. Water scarcity is a problem for the country,
since the tourism sector requires large quantities of water. The Mexican
T
C
A
Commission of Freshwater and Sewage estimated that the water sup-
Pollution
IMP
ply for Chetumal City will only last for another 50 years. In Costa Rica,
approximately 20% of its 650 aquifers are overexploited.
Overall, pollution is infl icting severe environmental impacts in the Cen-
tral America & Mexico sub-system, while its socio-economic impacts
Economic impacts
range from slight to severe (Annex II, scoring tables). The marine environ-
The impact of freshwater shortage on economic sectors in the Central
ment has been adversely aff ected by land-based sources of pollution
America & Mexico sub-system is moderate. Guatemala and Costa Rica
such as agricultural runoff and solid wastes, causing the deterioration
are facing water problems as they are failing to increase water sup-
of water quality (UNEP 2002). River basins and coastal areas are closely
ply in order to meet increasing demand for domestic and production
inter-linked by physical and biological processes, particularly the fl uxes
purposes.
of water, sediments and pollution. Coastal and marine zones serve in-
variably as receptors of riverine pollution, such as suspended sediments,
Impacts on human health
and are aff ected by changes in the river basin hydrological regime.
There have been moderate health impacts as a result of freshwater short-
ages. Rural areas are the most vulnerable as access to medical care is
Microbiological pollution
more restricted. Dengue fever and cholera are prevalent in these areas,
The impacts of microbiological pollution in the sub-system are slight.
their frequency directly related to seasonal conditions. Communities
In general, there is relatively limited fi sh mortality or migration caused
have established treatment systems for drinking water, but personnel
by microbiological pollution in the sub-system. However, fi sh mortal-
receive insuffi
cient training in order to operate the systems effi
ciently.
ity attributed to water pollution has been reported in Belize, but this
Given that only 35% of the rural population in Panama have access to
is not supported by scientifi c documentation. In Mexico, inadequately
treated water, the majority of the country's population are exposed to
treated sewage is discharged into Chetumal Bay, resulting in widespread
water-related diseases (Robles 1992).
microbiological pollution. Wastewater management and regulations
ASSESSMENT
39
are weak and the coastal population are unawareness of the negative
(CATHALAC 1999), Central America is the largest user of pesticides per
consequences of the pollution.
capita in Latin America and, as a result of the current economic model,
its use will increase further.
The San Juan River Basin contains a number of large cities - Masaya,
Granada, Boaco, Juigalpa and San Carlos in Nicaragua, and Quesada
Pesticides and organic waste, principally from coff ee production, are
City in Costa Rica - which discharge their wastewaters into the Basin's
the most common source of water pollution in Honduras. In Nicaragua,
water courses. Some of these cities have sewage treatment systems,
the pollution of aquifers by non-biodegradable pesticides has been ob-
whereas the rural population lacks basic sanitation services. The prob-
served, originating primarily from traditional cotton crops. Most urban
lems of wastewater management are exacerbated by the non-planned
residual water is not treated in Guatemala; pollution levels are unknown
development of human settlements, which are not covered by basic
since there is no institution responsible for water quality monitoring
sanitation services.
(FAO 2000). In San Juan Basin, the use of inappropriate production
technologies and the intensive application of agrochemicals on cer-
Eutrophication
tain crops and areas have impacted the quality of water resources, but
The impacts of eutrophication are moderate. There has been a prolifera-
this has been barely studied (OAS/UNEP 2002). The release of untreated
tion of algae in the Hondo River-Chetumal Bay Basin and algal growth
municipal and industrial residual wastewaters as well as solid wastes is
has increased on the coral reefs of Belize due to the discharge of sew-
also impacting the ecosystems of the San Juan River Basin. Sugar cane
age containing high concentrations of nutrients. Eutrophication is also
production in the sub-system results in pesticide and fertilizer contami-
impacting sea grasses; they now host more epiphytes and their leaves
nation, many of which are forbidden internationally, such as DDT. These
have become shorter and more fragile.
pollutants have gradually entered the aquatic environment via runoff
processes and leaching into groundwater.
Chetumal Bay contains high concentrations of organic material and ma-
rine algae are highly prevalent. Herrera-Silveira et al. (2002) observed
Studies made by Wesseling & Castillo (1992) show that Panama use the
the trophic characteristics of diff erent zones in Chetumal Bay in terms
largest quantities of pesticides per inhabitant and per cultivated hec-
of the diff erent nutrients and Cl-a at diff erent periods of the year. These
tare in Central America. Between 1990 and 1994, the annual average
results showed that there is a short-term high risk of eutrophication in
demand for pesticides was approximately 7.8 million kg gross weight.
more than 50% of Chetumal Bay´s surface.
In agreement with Díaz & Lamota (1998), studies in Panama indicate the
presence of pesticide residuals in bottom substrates, fi shes and crus-
In the San Juan River, studies made by the CIRA/UNAN indicate that the
taceans. Banana plantations at Bocas del Toro and Chiriquí are in close
maximum amount of biomass expressed as chlorophyll-a was observed
proximity to the habitat of manatees (Trichechus manatus) where runoff
in the river's delta (UNEP 2000a). The delta was characterized as having
containing agro-chemicals from the plantations enters the sea. Approxi-
the highest total phosphorus concentrations and above average ni-
mately 22% of the 229 samples taken in diff erent crop areas in Panama
trate concentrations. As a result of runoff containing nitrogen fertilizer,
have residuals of forbidden pesticides, such as DDT, dieldrin and HCB.
the fl ora has multiplied causing an ecological imbalance and a high
consumption of oxygen with negative consequences for the aquatic
In Chetumal Bay, mass catfi sh mortalities have been recorded that are
ecosystem. Increasing amounts of fertilisers are applied to compensate
attributed to contamination from toxic sediments and residuals trans-
for the reduction in the natural fertility of soils caused by overcropping
ported by Río Hondo which originate from the runoff of agrochemicals
(UNEP 2000a).
and pesticides in the river's catchment area. Concentrations of organo-
chloride pesticides have decreased in Chetumal Bay recently. In 1993,
Chemical pollution
the concentration of organochloride pesticides was about 400 ng/g, in-
The impact of chemical pollution on the environment is severe. There is
creasing to 2 000 ng/g in 1994, but in 1995 it had fallen to 400 ng/g and
evidence of high concentrations of organochlorides originating mainly
in 1999 was about 0 ng/g (Magnon 2002, García-Ríos & Gold-Bouchot
from agro-chemicals used in sugar cane and banana production. High
2002). In 1996, about 30 000 Ariopsis assimilis were recorded as dead; the
concentrations of pesticides and heavy metals have also been recorded
fi sh had high levels of heavy metals in their organs and tissues. Studies
in the basins of the sub-system and unknown quantities of various agro-
also revealed heavy metals in the blood and bones of manatees, pos-
chemicals are also believed to impact the marine environment. In agree-
sibly derived from seagrass consumption.
ment with the Vision on Water, Life and the Environment for the 21st Century
40
GIWA REGIONAL ASSESSMENT 3B, 3C CARIBBEAN SEA/COLOMBIA & VENEZUELA, CARIBBEAN SEA/CENTRAL AMERICA & MEXICO
Suspended solids
and transported by inshore currents, or the discharges of rivers espe-
The environmental impacts from the issue of suspended solids are
cially during rainy periods when river fl ows are greatest. Marine solid
severe. The sediment loads of water bodies in the Central America &
waste consists of mainly plastic bags, tar balls, fi shing nets and boat
Mexico sub-system have increased due to greater erosion in river ba-
ropes (PAC-PNUMA 1994). There are no records of solid wastes aff ecting
sins caused by deforestation, the expansion of agriculture and livestock
shrimp aquaculture or fi shing.
farming, and the development of settlements. It is estimated that rivers
from Central America and the Antilles supply 300 x 106 tonnes per year
Thermal pollution
of suspended solids into the Greater Caribbean Region (PAC- PNUMA
There is a lack of information concerning thermal impacts. Because,
1994). Suspended solids have also increased due to natural hazards,
however, there are isolated reports of thermal pollution, the issue was
such as hurricanes and fl ooding.
assessed as slight. For example, sugar cane crops grown close to riv-
ers in Belize cause fi sh mortality due to oxygen depletion and higher
In Costa Rica, aerial surveys in diff erent years have observed suspended
temperatures.
solids coming from the middle reaches and headwaters of the San Juan
Basin (predominantly from the San Carlos and Sarapiqui rivers), that
Radionuclides
have intensifi ed sedimentation downstream and occasionally formed
There are no known impacts of radionuclides in the sub-system. Stud-
sand islands, thus impeding navigation. The suspended solids in this
ies in Panama and Costa Rica found that radionuclide levels were of
case originate from soil erosion caused by the construction of water
no concern.
infrastructure such as dams, small enterprises and mining development
(Costa Rica 1997).
Oil spills
Oil spills in the Central America & Mexico sub-system are having severe
In the San Juan River Basin, shared by Nicaragua and Costa Rica, ex-
environmental impacts. The spills occur primarily in the Panama Canal
tensive soil erosion has been caused by agricultural development in
and in the Caribbean Sea. An oil pipeline traverses the transboundary
inappropriate locations and intensive deforestation, with a national de-
basins from Honduras to Mexico, Belize and Guatemala which could po-
forestation rate greater than 150 000 ha/year in Nicaragua and 18 500
tentially result in oil spills and leakages. Additionally, hydrocarbons from
ha/year in Costa Rica (Allen 2001). In addition to the degradation of soils
Venezuela are transported by currents to the sub-system. Oil residues
and decreased agro-productivity, the increased erosion causes greater
are also released by cruise liners when they wash their tanks at sea and
sedimentation and turbidity in the aquatic environment. Studies made
are often transported to the sub-system's beaches.
by the CIRA/UNAN indicate that higher turbidity in the San Juan River is
preventing the penetration of light, which is inhibiting phytoplankton
Panama is at a high risk of oil pollution due to its importance as a trans-
production (UNEP 2000a). Low primary productivity and the reduced
port route; approximately 13 000 ships and 70 million tonnes of oil pass
amount of biomass expressed as chlorophyll-a were observed in its
through the Panama Canal each year. A signifi cant number of accidental
minimum levels in the River Sarapiquí. In the coastal zone, sedimenta-
spills occur when transporting and transferring oil in terminals (Guzmán
tion degrades the ecosystems; smothering corals and decreasing the
& Jiménez 1992). In Panama, in addition to occasional larger spills, a sig-
reproduction rate of marine species, many of which are commercially
nifi cant amount of hydrocarbons go directly into the sea during routine
important. Sedimentation is a transboundary problem with accelerated
operations (Jackson 1989). At the only refi nery in Panama there have
erosive processes within the catchment of the San Juan Basin causing
been two major oil spills. The largest was in 1986 when 8 million litres of
impacts downstream and in the coastal zone (UNEP 2000a).
raw petroleum was released into Bahía Las Minas (Jackson 1989), aff ect-
ing 8 km of coast and causing mangrove and coral reef mortality.
Solid wastes
The environmental impact of solid waste pollution is considered as
Economic impacts
moderate. Solid wastes are particularly present in tourist areas and along
The impact of pollution on the economic sectors of the Central Amer-
the transit paths of ships. Settlements in the Hondo River Basin often
ica & Mexico sub-system is severe. The tourism, agriculture and fi sher-
dispose of solid wastes inappropriately. For example, wastes are often
ies sectors have been particularly aff ected by pollution, especially in
dumped in wetlands to reclaim land (CONABIO 2003). Marine fl oating
Costa Rica, Nicaragua and Belize. Tourism, one of the most important
debris can be derived either from wastes discharged by ships and fi sh-
economic sectors in the sub-system, is impacted by the loss of aesthetic
ing vessels, solid wastes washed into the sea from coastal settlements
and recreational values, and the health risks caused by pollution. Any
ASSESSMENT
41
reduction in tourists has a direct infl uence on the economy of the whole
strict monitoring methods. Among the principal aqueducts, only 19.7%
region. Studies in Quintana Roo, Mexico, emphasise the importance of
have permanent disinfecting equipment, which represents a risk for the
eliminating pollution in Chetumal Bay for the success of tourism in the
population with low incomes (Costa Rica 2001).
area (Mendoza Gómez et al. 2002, Briceño Millán & Rivas Hernández
2002, Rosado-May et al. 2002).
Conclusions and future outlook
In the Central America & Mexico sub-system the overall environmental
In Costa Rica, over the last decade there has been a reduction in fi sheries
impacts of pollution were assessed as severe. The most important issues
production due to the degradation of aquatic ecosystems by pollution
are chemical pollution, suspended solids and oil spills. Pollution directly
and other factors. In the Nicoya Gulf (Costa Rica) catches have declined
infl uences the GIWA freshwater shortage concern as many water sources
as a result of the discharge of untreated wastewater, costing the fi sher-
have been contaminated and are unfi t for human consumption.
ies sector an estimated 183 million USD in 2000. The imminent short-
age of potable water in Costa Rica due to the pollution of supplies and
Pollution infl icts severe economic and health impacts. The tourism in-
increasing demand will necessitate signifi cant investment in treatment
dustry has lost income and fi sheries production has been reduced in
facilities (Costa Rica 2001, Costa Rica 2002).
Costa Rica and Chetumal Bay as a result of pollution. Chemical pollution
was considered to have the highest relative weight of impact due to
Impacts on human health
the health impacts associated with the use of agrochemicals and the
The impacts of pollution on human health were considered to be severe.
diffi
culties addressing this form of pollution. The contamination of fi sh-
Near sugar cane plantations, mutations and a higher rate of miscarriages
eries products has aff ected the health of the sub-system's population.
and sterility in young women have been registered, which has been at-
Low income groups are the most vulnerable to water-related diseases
tributed to the application of illegal agro-chemicals. An assessment of
as they are forced to consume untreated water.
pesticide use in Bocas del Toro, Panama, concluded that the population
located around three banana plantations is exposed to 180 899 kg/year
By 2020, it is anticipated that the governments of the region will con-
of pesticides and 632 171 kg/year of fertilizers. Among the most com-
trol and regulate activities which are currently generating pollution so
mon illnesses reported in the area are diarrhoea and vomiting. Protec-
that the situation will improve. For example, it is envisaged that laws
tive measures are only used by the persons who are directly exposed
governing natural resource planning and protection will be adopted,
to pesticides (Gaitán 1998).
environmental impact assessments will become statutory and new
cleaner technologies will be developed. But this may not be the case
In Chetumal Bay, the consumption of contaminated fi sh is having health
for all countries, for example, in Panama water regulations are particu-
implications for the population of Quintana Roo, México, where most of
larly weak. The main defi ciency in water law in sub-system 3c is regard-
the fi sh are sold. Bioaccumulation of heavy metals in the tissue of catfi sh
ing coastal and marine regulations.
(Ariopsis assimilis) has also been reported (García-Rios & Gold-Bouchot
2002). The poor water quality of Chetumal Bay and the adjacent river
system is severely aff ecting human health with frequent cases of eye
T
C
A
infection, gastrointestinal and dermatological illnesses. During the cul-
Habitat and community
IMP
tivation of sugar cane, contact with chemical products has caused new
modification
born malformations, mutations and miscarriages. Sewage discharged
into the Bay, which contains microbiological pollution, is spreading dis-
The overall environmental impacts of habitat and community modi-
eases such as gastroenteritis, typhoid, amoeba, parasites and cysticer-
fi cation in the Central America & Mexico sub-system are severe while
coids (Canché 2002).
socio-economic aspects range from slight to severe.
Other social and community impacts
Loss and modification of habitats and communities
The impact of pollution on other social and community issues is mod-
The impacts of the loss and modifi cation of ecosystems are severe. There
erate. The environmental quality of the sub-system has decreased as a
is evidence that marine habitats, especially mangrove swamps, have
result of pollution, causing a loss in aesthetic and amenity value. The
been modifi ed and destroyed as a consequence of human activities in
National Water Laboratory of IICA in Costa Rica (2001) stated that only
the coastal zone (UNEP 2000a). Continued population growth is putting
58.3% of the national population is supplied with treated water after
increasing pressure on the ecosystems of Central America.
42
GIWA REGIONAL ASSESSMENT 3B, 3C CARIBBEAN SEA/COLOMBIA & VENEZUELA, CARIBBEAN SEA/CENTRAL AMERICA & MEXICO
The survival of Sarstoon-Temash's unique wetland and mangrove
In Cancun and Cozumel in Quintana Roo, Mexico, coastal ecosystems
complex owes a great deal to the careful management practices of the
and communities are aff ected by urban expansion and the concen-
local indigenous people who have throughout history depended on
tration of economic development along the coast (UNEP 2002). The
its resources. The area's physical isolation from the national centres of
Hondo River is impacted by deforestation in its watershed, pollution
economic and infrastructure development is also a major contributing
from aquaculture, livestock farming (Sepulveda 1998), the discharge
factor in its preservation. Today, these "natural protections" are being
of untreated domestic and industrial wastewater, and agro-chemical
weakened with the national park's exceptionally untouched status now
runoff from arable land. The wetlands are threatened by road construc-
under acute and serious threat (The World Bank 2000b):
tion, dredging activities, deforestation and intensive agriculture. Soil
erosion in the Hondo River Basin is intensifi ed by deforestation and the
A large logging concession that put great pressure on the forest
construction of tracks that allow farmers to access arable lands. Con-
resources around the park is currently being renegotiated, both
tinued agricultural development in the catchment (sugar cane, annual
in terms of size and location, because of its ecological impacts.
crops, milpa and pasture) increases the potential for agricultural runoff
However, a number of small concessions are being issued where
and reduces indigenous vegetation cover.
individuals often willingly/unwillingly violate the Park's protection
because it is not yet demarcated, boundaries exist only on paper
The aquatic ecosystems of the Hondo River Basin were altered by the
and monitoring of logging activities is insuffi
cient.
introduction of alien species including Tilapia (Oreochromis mossambi-
On the Guatemalan side, all forest vegetation along the border has
cus and O. niloticus) and by the use of poisons and non-selective traps
been replaced by grassland. Villagers around the Park found ample
by fi shers (CONABIO 2003). The intensive maritime traffi
c, particularly
evidence of commercial hunting in the Park (mainly for Iguana).
through the Panama Canal, also introduces alien species that are con-
Mining of natural resources: A gravel and sand quarry is located
tained in cargo or attached to ship hulls, which can become invasive.
in the area. Renewed interest (given current oil market prices) has
Additionally, there are reports in Costa Rica of illegal hunting and trade
been expressed in an oil exploration concession, issued in 1998 to
in endangered fl ora and fauna (Costa Rica 2001). Consequently, popula-
an American Company for the whole southern part of the Toledo
tions of amphibian species have decreased, including gold toad (Bufo
district. On the list of potential exploration is one site within the
periglenes) and clown frog (Atelopus sp.). In some cases, the introduc-
Park's boundaries in the Black Creek area (a wetland) and close to
tion of foreign species threatens indigenous species which have a high
Crique Sarco, one of the villages involved.
cultural value. For example, the guapote has declined since the intro-
A number of small-scale farmers living on National lands as what is
duction of the tilapia.
called "long term occupants" adjacent to the Park threaten its integ-
rity through agricultural encroachment and overuse of the forest
The coral reefs in the Caribbean part of Central America are disturbed
resources.
with increasing frequency and intensity in recent years. Before 1998, the
main disturbances were hurricanes, coral diseases and, more recently,
Coral reefs are aff ected by climate change which is causing bleaching
mass coral bleaching (1995 and 1997). During this fi rst well-documented
and mortality, destructive fi shing practices, poor land-use practices and
mass bleaching event in Belize, 53% of coral colonies were bleached,
unregulated coastal development (Kramer et al. 2000). In Panama, coral
although only 10-13% of corals died. These impacts were also observed
reefs are under stress and, on the coast of the Caribbean island of Kuna-
in Cayos Cochinos, Honduras, where 73% of scleractinian corals and
Yala, the coral population structure changed during the 1980s as a result
92% of hydrocorals were bleached and slightly higher mortality was re-
of traditional practices of the Kuna community. Coral cover decreased
ported. In 1998, there was intense bleaching (>50% colonies) starting in
by 79% between 1970 and 2001 while the indigenous population in-
Yucatan in August/September (particularly aff ecting Agaricia tenuifolia
creased by 62%. These practices included the construction of a wall, 20
colonies) followed by reports from Belize in September (A. tenuifolia and
km long and 16 000 m3 in volume, and the reclaiming of land from sea
Millepora spp.) and Honduras in September/October. Surveys indicated
using coralline material to increase the surface area of the island by 623
that the 1998 bleaching event aff ected the entire Mesoamerican Barrier
ha. As a consequence, coastal erosion has increased since the protec-
Reef region and was possibly more severe than the mass bleaching in
tive function of the coral reef has been removed and the sea level has
1995, having eff ects 10 months after the initial bleaching (up to 44% of
been rising by 2 cm per year (Guzman et al. 2003). According to Jackson
corals were still bleached). Specifi c fi ndings included a regional aver-
et al. (1989), mangroves and coral reefs in Bahía Las Minas were severely
age of 18% coral mortality on shallow reefs; 14% on fore reefs; and up
aff ected by the spill of 8 million tonnes of raw petroleum.
to 75% coral mortality in localized patches and barrier reefs in southern
ASSESSMENT
43
Belize. The species with the highest mortality were A. tenuifolia (>35%),
river beds, infrastructure damage, human injuries and even death. Other
M. complanata (28%) and Montastrea annularis (25-50%). There was a
natural phenomena have also degraded the ecosystems, such as deser-
high incidence of black band disease following the bleaching event on
tifi cation caused by the ENSO and seismic activity which can change
Belize shallow reefs and white plaque in Honduras and Belize. White
the riverbeds. For example, the Río Tipitapa connects the Managua and
band disease has devastated Acropora populations since the early 1980s
Nicaragua lakes, but following an earthquake in the last century the
including many areas in Belize, where they constitute the primary shal-
level of the riverbed rose resulting in the obstruction of the river.
low reef builders. Additionally, the 1983 loss of the grazing sea urchin
Diadema antillarum has also caused damage to the region (Kramer et
Wetlands in the San Juan River Basin are highly valuable ecosystems that
al. 2000). The principal anthropogenic threats to coral reef biodiversity
regulate the hydrological cycle and provide nourishment and refuge for
aff ecting the countries of sub-system 3c are given in Table 5.
hundreds of species of wildlife, including migratory birds. Vast areas of
wetland have been drained for agriculture or human settlements. Aerial
Table 5
Principal anthropogenic threats to coral reef biodiversity
photos of Caño Negro show that the area of water has diminished over
Theats
Mexico
Belize
Guatemala
Honduras
Nicaragua
time because of drainage for agriculture and increased sedimentation
Agricultural run-off
in the wetlands.
Aquaculture development
Coral extraction (curio trade)
Economic impacts
Deforestation
The impacts of habitat modifi cation on the economic sectors of the
Destructive fishing
Central America & Mexico sub-system are severe. The tourism sector has
Diving activities
lost income as a result of habitat modifi cation; in Nicoya (Costa Rica),
Dredging
for example, at an estimated cost of 12 million USD per year (Costa Rica
Fish extraction
2001). The modifi cation of ecosystems in the Hondo River/Chetumal Bay
Garbage pollution
Basin have impacted the economy of the region by causing a range of
Heavy metal pollution
problems including environmental migration, increased health costs
Industrial activities
and reduced productivity of soils. The loss of fi sheries habitat has re-
Maritime activities
duced fi sh catches, thus impacting the fi sheries sector. A reduction in
Oil pollution
the recreational and aesthetic value of the basin's environment has ad-
Over-fishing
versely aff ected the tourism industry. The region's Manatee population
Sedimentation/siltation
has been depleted, with a subsequent loss of natural attractions for
Sewage pollution
tourists. In the San Juan Basin, the loss of ecosystems, particularly coral
Tourism activities
reefs and mangroves, reduces the natural protection of the coast from
Urban development
erosion processes that aff ect coastal settlements and infrastructure. As
(Source Kramer et al. 2000)
a consequence, the population will be more vulnerable to sea-level rise
Natural hazards have an important impact on habitats, including beach
and extreme weather conditions in the future.
loss, erosion and sedimentation. Hurricanes have impacted coral reefs
in localized areas of Mexico and Belize with varying degrees of recovery.
Impacts on human health
Results of a large-scale survey assessing the impact of Hurricane Mitch
Although it is diffi
cult to accurately assess the impact of habitat modi-
(1998) on the Mesoamerican Barrier Reef system at 151 sites found: (i)
fi cation on human health because no direct eff ects have been docu-
the greatest damage was to the Belize barrier (29% of shallow corals and
mented, the concern was considered to have slight impacts. In Chetu-
5% of fore corals damaged); (ii) Guanaja (22%) had more damage than
mal Bay, the limited capacity of the ecosystems to recover from human
Roatan (13%), Utila (8%), and Cayos Cochinos (5%); and (iii) almost 80%
activities has led to a persistent deterioration in the environmental
of corals were damaged at NE Globers Reef, the highest in the region.
quality of the area, which has reduced the standards of living for the
Localized shallow reefs in Belize and Honduras had 50-70% of corals
local population. They now struggle to meet their basic needs and the
damaged; Acropora tenuifolia and M. complanata were most aff ected.
conditions are suitable for the transmission of diseases through direct
There was a major reduction of reef structure on many shallow reefs
contact with water during recreational activities. Furthermore, there has
(Kramer et al. 2000). Habitats in the San Juan Basin have been damaged
been a reduction in the access of the population to medical services
by at least three hurricanes that caused fl ooding, soil erosion, changes in
and prevention programmes.
44
GIWA REGIONAL ASSESSMENT 3B, 3C CARIBBEAN SEA/COLOMBIA & VENEZUELA, CARIBBEAN SEA/CENTRAL AMERICA & MEXICO
Other social and community impacts
Overexploitation
Other social and community impacts are severe as indigenous commu-
Overexploitation is severe in the sub-system, particularly in the lobster
nities are signifi cantly aff ected by habitat modifi cation. For example, in
and mollusc fi sheries. A large proportion of the total catch supplies
the Sixaola Basin, a reduction in the productivity of soils due to deforest-
the tourist and international market. In Belize and Costa Rica, some fi sh
ation and the expansion of banana and plantain plantations has forced
stocks are exploited above their sustainable level. In a study by Sullivan
indigenous communities to migrate. The Bribis and Cabecares ethnic
and Bustamante (1999 in UNEP 2000b), overexploitation was identifi ed
groups have lost some of their cultural identity as they have lost their
in 34 out of the 51 local production systems studied.
lands (Dávila 2000). In Belize, the expansion of large-scale agriculture
is expected to result in the migration of additional labourers into the
Over the last ten years there has been a reduction in catch levels in Costa
southern region where they will practice agriculture on marginal and
Rican waters due to the depletion of fi sh stocks as a result of overexploi-
highly unstable soils. This, in turn, will push the agricultural frontier fur-
tation and pollution. Although many sharks are caught as by-catch, they
ther into the interior and encroach on reserves and protected areas, thus
are also deliberately hunted as a result of the decline of traditional coastal
leading to more habitat transformation, reductions in biodiversity and
fi sheries, commercial diversifi cation, the exploitation of off shore fi sher-
increased rates of erosion and sedimentation (The World Bank 2000b).
ies and market demand. The coastal fi shery is continuously in decline,
including shrimps. Additionally, lobster (Panulirus argus) catches, which
Conclusions and future outlook
represented 2% to 4% of the Costa Rican catch, decreased from 271 114
The environmental impact of habitat modifi cation is severe as human ac-
tonnes in 2000 to 38 613 tonnes in 2001 (Costa Rica 2001).
tivities have signifi cantly aff ected forest, swamp and coral ecosystems.
Policy makers have not considered the environmental costs of their devel-
Throughout the Caribbean part of Central America, queen conch
opment strategies, largely due to a lack of understanding of environmen-
(Strombus gigas) and spiny lobster (Panulirus argus) are overexploited
tal issues. Regional authorities, however, are now addressing this issue and
due to their economic, social and cultural value. Additionally, commer-
beginning to restore habitats and reverse degradation trends.
cial fi sh stocks have declined due to illegal fi shing, the weak enforce-
ment of fi sheries regulations, and the lack of transboundary fi sheries
The economic impacts of habitat modifi cation are severe as the aes-
management. In Mexico, extensive overexploitation in the late 1970s
thetic and recreational appeal for tourists has been reduced, which
caused conch stocks to collapse, leading to fi shery closures in Yucatan
has hindered the expansion of the tourism industry in the sub-system.
(1988) and seasonal closures in Quintana Roo (1991). In Belize, lobster
The impact of this concern on health was considered to be slight due
constitutes the largest and most important fi shery, but years of over-
to a lack of documented evidence. Finally, the social and community
fi shing have reduced both lobster and conch populations. The popu-
impacts are severe due to forced migration and a loss of the cultural
lations are skewed towards smaller lobsters, while many conch are of a
identity of indigenous people.
legal size but not sexually mature. However, the overall status of lobsters
and conch is unknown. Historically, Honduras caught the most lobster
It is expected that, in 2020, the expansion of the tourism industry will
in the sub-system but catches have drastically declined as there are no
have a less signifi cant impact due to the development of eco-tourism.
regulations to prevent the overexploitation of the lobster fi shery. Large
Additionally, sustainable actions and habitat restoration will have gov-
lobsters are rare and populations of conch and lobster are only found
ernment support.
in deeper waters. In Nicaragua, little is known about conch stocks; there
are no regulations to conserve lobster or conch and illegal fi shing by
foreign vessels is the greatest threat (Kramer et al. 2000). Landings of the
main commercial marine resources in 1998 are given in Table 6.
T
C
A
Unsustainable exploitation of
IMP
fish and other living resources
Table 6
Landings of conch, lobster and fi sh in Central American
countries.
Country
Conch (tonnes)
Lobster (tonnes)
Fish (tonnes)
Overall, the environmental impacts of the unsustainable exploitation
Belize
252
502
111
of fi sh and other living resources are moderate and the socio-economic
Guatemala
-
-
213
impacts range from slight to moderate. The most severe issues are over-
Honduras
490 (1996)
306
160
Mexico
3 293
613
93 291
exploitation due to the overcapacity of the fi shing fl eet and the use of
Nicaragua
162
3 729
4 088
destructive fi shing practices.
(Source: Kramer et al. 2000)
ASSESSMENT
45
Excessive by-catch and discards
creasing coastal catches (Costa Rica 2001). This situation suggests that
The assessment found that the issue of excessive by-catch and discards
the economic impacts of overfi shing are masked by the income from
has slight impacts. However, there is insuffi
cient data to analyze this
newly exploited off shore pelagic fi sheries replacing the lost income
issue adequately. UNEP (2000b) stated that one of the factors aff ecting
from the coastal fi sheries. This is not a solution for the fi shing industry
coastal and marine fi sheries in the sub-system is accidental by-catch
in the long-term.
and discharges, including turtles, marine mammals, marine birds and
other small species fundamental to the sub-system's ecosystems.
Impacts on human health
The impact on human health is estimated as slight, but there is a lack of
Destructive fishing practices
data to substantiate this score.
Destructive fi shing methods are infl icting severe impacts. Habitats are
degraded by the employment of trasmallo (fi xed fi shing nets in shallow
Other social and community impacts
waters), illegal nets, trawling, dynamite and poison. There is no data
This concern has moderate other social and community impacts. The
to substantiate this score since most of these practices are illegal and,
structure of the economy has changed, with a shift of importance from
therefore, diffi
cult to monitor. There is also no documentation about
the fi sheries sector to the tourism sector. Consequently, the number of
which species are most aff ected by these practices.
people employed in the fi sheries sector has decreased. Off shore fi sh-
ing in Costa Rica is beyond the technical and fi nancial capabilities of
In Mexico, there are reports of fi shers using poison and non-selective
artisanal fi shers who are forced to rely on the depleted coastal fi shing
traps (CONABIO 2003) and queen conch collected using scuba and
resources (Costa Rica 2001).
hook techniques. In Belize, illegal fi shing is widely practiced including
the use of baited gill nets to harvest lobster, which also damage reefs
Conclusions and future outlook
(Kramer et al. 2000). Today, the shark bull is rarely found in Lake Nicara-
Overall, the unsustainable exploitation of fi sh and other living resources
gua or the San Juan River; this is believed to be attributed to the dete-
was considered to have moderate environmental impacts, with the
rioration of the ecosystem which supports it due to the employment
major issues identifi ed as overexploitation and destructive fi shing
of destructive fi shing methods.
practices. The economic impacts are slight due to an expansion in the
off shore fi sheries compensating for reduced coastal catches. There is
Decreased viability of stocks through pollution
a lack of information on the impact on human health. The impacts on
and disease
other social and community issues are moderate as fi shers are being
The issue of decreased viability of stocks through pollution and disease
forced to change their livelihood strategy in response to the downturn
is considered to have slight impacts. There are some reports about dif-
in the coastal fi sheries sector.
ferent diseases, such as taura in aquacultured shrimps in Belize, but
there is no evidence of how wild stocks are aff ected.
Commercial fi shing resources have been mainly aff ected by overex-
ploitation, but also by other factors including habitat modifi cation. The
Impact on biological and genetic diversity
fi sheries sector will be subject to tighter regulations and stronger en-
The impact on biological and genetic diversity was assessed as slight.
forcement in the near future in order to increase the sustainability of fi sh
There is evidence that alien species have been introduced, particularly
stocks. If fi sheries management instruments are not fully implemented
in Belize, but there is no knowledge of how these species are impact-
or enforced, overexploitation will continue and fi shers will be forced to
ing indigenous species.
exploit other species as the current commercial stocks - both inshore
and off shore - become exhausted.
Economic impacts
The economic impacts of the unsustainable exploitation of the fi sheries
and other living resources are slight. Many communities in the sub-sys-
T
C
A
tem are highly dependent on the fi shing industry and, therefore, have
Global change
IMP
been aff ected by the decline in catches. Further, due to the reduction
in catches, prices have risen, making them less aff ordable for low in-
The environmental impacts of global change on the Central America
come population groups. In Costa Rica, the trend over the last 10 years
& Mexico sub-system are moderate while its socio-economic impacts
has been to increasingly exploit the off shore fi shery because of de-
were assessed as moderate to severe (Annex II). Changes in the hydrolog-
46
GIWA REGIONAL ASSESSMENT 3B, 3C CARIBBEAN SEA/COLOMBIA & VENEZUELA, CARIBBEAN SEA/CENTRAL AMERICA & MEXICO
ical cycle and sea-level change have caused moderate impacts based on
Increased UV-b radiation as a result of ozone
the increased frequency of natural hazards, such as fl ooding, and wetter
depletion
conditions in the Caribbean and a dryer climate in the Pacifi c.
The impact of UV-B radiation was assessed as slight. There is a lack data
concerning this issue and studies are needed to determine its potential
Changes in hydrological cycle and ocean circulation
impacts on coral reefs.
Studies (CRRH 1996 in CATHALAC 1999) on the potential regional af-
fects of climate change suggest that variations in precipitation pat-
Changes in ocean CO source/sink function
2
terns and an increase in sea level will impact lowland aquifers. Coastal
The impact of changes in ocean CO sink/source function was also as-
2
communities of the Caribbean watershed will be the most aff ected as
sessed as slight. But, again, there is a severe lack of data regarding this
groundwater is an important source of water. Increased climatic vari-
issue and further studies are needed to determine its possible impacts.
ability will also aff ect agricultural patterns, especially rain-fed agriculture
(CATHALAC 1999).
Economic impacts
Global changes are having severe impacts on the economic sectors of
The sub-system's coastal zone has been impacted by hurricanes
the sub-system, particularly agriculture and tourism which are the most
throughout history. Hurricane Gilbert (1988) caused severe damage to
economically important sectors in Central America. In Quintana Roo,
shallow reefs along the Yucatan Peninsula; Hurricane Haiti (1961) and
80% of the population resides within the coastal zone, many attracted
Greta (1978) were two of the most signifi cant storms to hit the central
by employment opportunities provided by the tourism industry. The
coast of Belize; and Hurricane Fifi (1974) devastated the coast of Hon-
population living in the coastal zone, including tourists, will face in-
duras. Then there was Hurricane Mitch, a category 5 hurricane with
creasing economic, environmental and social risks as a consequence
sustained wind speeds of over 250 km per hour battering the Carib-
of climate change, e.g. sea-level rise and hurricanes. Signifi cant miti-
bean coast and parts of Honduras, Nicaragua and Guatemala in late
gation costs will be incurred in order to protect the sub-system from
October to early November 1998. The hurricane denuded pine and
climate change induced hazards. Tourist facilities are often particularly
mangrove forests and reduced coral cover by 15-20% off the coast of
vulnerable as they are commonly located in coastal dunes and wet-
the Yucatan Peninsula to Honduras and by as much as 75% in parts of
lands that are in the path of storms. For example, in 1989 Hurricane
Belize (Kramer et al. 2000).
Gilberto severely damaged tourism developments and resulted in a
loss of employment.
According to the GIWA regional experts, the coastal zone of Quintana
Roo is vulnerable to global changes as a result of urban and tourism
The increased frequency of extreme events caused by global climate
developments located in unstable coastal areas that are often prone
change could severely impact the economy of the sub-system. In 1998,
to subsidence; its location on the path of hydro-meteorological phe-
the GDP growth of Honduras decreased from 5.8% to 2.7% due to the
nomena; and because the removal of beach material has reduced the
impacts of Hurricane Mitch (República de Honduras 2000). Further,
coastline's natural sea defences. These factors have accelerated erosion
NOAA (2000) estimated that 50% of Honduras' agricultural crops were
processes around Chetumal Bay, stimulated coastal landslides and in-
destroyed and at least 70 000 houses and 92 bridges were damaged or
creased the severity of natural events such as Hurricane Gilberto.
destroyed by the hurricane. There was severe damage to the infrastruc-
ture of Honduras and entire communities were isolated from assistance.
Sea-level change
Nicaragua was also aff ected when a large mudslide inundated ten com-
The impact of sea-level rise in sub-system 3c is moderate. In Mexico,
munities situated at the base of La Casitas Volcano. Guatemala and El
there is evidence of coastal erosion and the redistribution of ecosystems
Salvador also suff ered from fl ash fl oods which destroyed thousands of
associated with sea-level rise, but more scientifi c studies are needed.
homes, along with bridges and roads.
According to the regional experts, Chetumal Bay is being signifi cantly
eroded in various areas as a result of sea-level rise, and in Costa Rica
Evaluations of the vulnerability of Costa Rica's agricultural sector to
marine transgression is inundating lowland coastal areas and increasing
climate change predict that rice and bean crops will be negatively af-
the area of tidal fl oodplains.
fected by changes in temperature and CO concentrations but coff ee
2
crops will be favoured. The productivity of the latter will be improved as
CO will enhance the photosynthesis rate and, therefore, biomass pro-
2
duction. Coff ee production constitutes the country's primary economic
ASSESSMENT
47
activity, accounting for 20% of GDP. There are, however, uncertainties
Conclusions and future outlook
about the eff ects of temperature variations on these crops (República
The most severe environmental issues of global change were identifi ed
de Costa Rica 2000).
as `changes in the hydrological cycle and ocean circulation', and `sea-
level change' which both have a moderate impact. The impact on the
In Nicaragua, simulations of the eff ects of climate change on the pro-
regional economy was assessed as severe as natural phenomena have
duction of basic grains showed annual production to be less than
aff ected important economic sectors such as tourism and agriculture.
baseline growth. Simulations of the eff ect of climate change on other
The impact on health was assessed as moderate, taking into account
agricultural products also found that productivity would decline; the
the relationship between climate change and water- related diseases.
basic harvest decreasing by as much as 66% in some areas (República
The social and community impacts of extreme events which may be
de Guatemala 2001).
associated with climate change were considered severe.
Impacts on human health
In the future, the situation will become worse as extreme weather
Health impacts as a result of global change are considered moderate.
events are expected to increase in frequency and intensity. Climate
In Guatemala, the First National Communication for the Convention on
change is already impacting various species, and the ecosystems of
Climate Change established that serious diarrhoea will have a seasonal
the sub-system are sensitive to environmental changes. The current
behaviour and malaria will decrease in prevalence due to a change in
precautionary measures are not far-reaching enough to prepare the
seasonal weather patterns. In general, an increase in temperature and
region for the increasingly severe impacts of the predicted global
a decrease in rainfall and surface runoff is expected, which will reduce
changes. Tourism development in coastal areas will continue to desta-
freshwater availability for humans and ecosystems. Consequently, the
bilise the coastline by, for example, the removal of beach material and
health of the sub-system's inhabitants will be adversely aff ected, with
mangrove clearance, thus exacerbating the impact of climate change
an increase in water related diseases such as diarrhoea, and parasitic and
on erosion processes. Global climate change is not a regional problem;
dermatological diseases (República de Guatemala 2001). In Quintana
the situation must be resolved through international cooperation and
Roo, a major problem associated with global climate change is the con-
action, such as the ratifi cation and implementation of international
tamination of groundwater. Following severe storm events an increase
agreements and treaties.
in disease is observed, including diarrhoea, cholera, and simple and he-
morrhagic dengue, due to the presence of stagnating water.
Other social and community impacts
Priority concerns for further
Global changes were assessed as having severe other social and com-
analysis
munity impacts. Sub-system 3c's population is increasingly vulnerable
to extreme weather events which may harm humans and cause forced
Priority concerns of the Colombia & Venezuela
migration. In Honduras, the houses of 660 000 people were damaged
sub-system
due to Hurricane Mitch; 260 000 people were moved to temporary ac-
The Colombia & Venezuela sub-system includes the Magdalena, Ori-
commodation and 396 000 had to remain in their homes (República de
noco and Catatumbo river basins which cover an area stretching from
Honduras 1995). NOAA (2000) estimated that Mitch was responsible for
the Andean highlands to the Caribbean Sea. The basins contain a rich
between 9 000 and 12 000 deaths, predominately from rain-induced
diversity of species and ecosystems which are now threatened by habi-
fl ooding in portions of Central America, mainly in Honduras and Nicara-
tat loss and fragmentation. Habitat and community modifi cation was
gua. This makes Mitch one of the deadliest Atlantic tropical cyclones in
correspondingly selected as the GIWA priority concern for sub-system
history, ranking only below the 1780 "Great Hurricane" in the Lesser An-
3b, Colombia & Venezuela. Habitat modifi cation is the consequence of
tilles, and comparable to the Galveston hurricane of 1900 and Hurricane
several environmental issues examined under the other GIWA concerns.
Fifi of 1974 which primarily aff ected Honduras. In the case of Quintana
In particular, pollution and the overexploitation of living resources are
Roo, severe weather events have resulted in the relocation of aff ected
resulting in widespread habitat modifi cation. The GIWA concerns were
populations, stimulating social and economic instability since much of
prioritised for the Colombia & Venezuela sub-system (3b) in the fol-
the land left by the relocated population became unproductive, neces-
lowing order:
sitating new housing and sources of employment.
1. Habitat and community modifi cation
2. Unsustainable exploitation of fi sh and other living resources
48
GIWA REGIONAL ASSESSMENT 3B, 3C CARIBBEAN SEA/COLOMBIA & VENEZUELA, CARIBBEAN SEA/CENTRAL AMERICA & MEXICO
3. Pollution
sudden oxygen depletion, caused by a climatic anomaly and chemical
4. Global
change
pollution (Garzón-Ferreira et al. 2000).
5. Freshwater
shortage
Priority concerns of the Central America &
The economies of Colombia & Venezuela are highly dependent on the
Mexico sub-system
exploitation of their natural resources. The governments of the two
The habitats of the Central America & Mexico sub-system have been
countries have tried to address the endemic poverty by promoting the
modifi ed by a range of factors including deforestation, surface- and
expansion of agriculture into forested areas. The high rates of defor-
groundwater pollution, industrial dumping, the discharge of untreated
estation are resulting in greater quantities of sediment entering rivers
or inadequately treated sewage water, the leaching of fertilizers and
and eventually being discharged into coastal waters. The production
pesticides, overexploitation of groundwater, increased sedimentation
of illegal crops has also led to deforestation, and government initiatives
due to deforestation, and more frequent fl oods. Habitat and commu-
to fumigate these crops have resulted in the chemical contamination
nity modifi cation was selected as the priority concern for the Central
of the surrounding terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems (Michaels 2001,
America & Mexico sub-system. The GIWA concerns were prioritised for
Knight 2002, Mabogunje 2002). The western and southern areas of the
the Central America & Mexico sub-system (3c) in the following order:
basin are the most aff ected (Wildlife 2003).
1. Habitat and community modifi cation
2. Pollution
The Caribbean coast of Colombia hosts 71% of the country's total wet-
3. Unsustainable exploitation of fi sh and other living resources
lands (MMA 2002) which are highly important for water regulation and
4. Freshwater
Shortage
in providing habitat for rare, endangered, and commercially or recrea-
5. Global
change
tionally important wildlife species (Tiner 1984 in Lyon & McCarthy 1995).
A range of anthropogenic activities are threatening the wetlands and
In recent decades, Central America has seen some of the highest de-
have reduced the abundance and diversity of wetland species.
forestation rates in the world. Deforestation is often driven by inequi-
ties in land distribution and high population growth rates. In the San
Pollution is a major cause of habitat modifi cation in the sub-system.
Juan River Basin, shared by Costa Rica and Nicaragua, the expansion of
Widespread contamination by spills of hazardous or aesthetically dis-
agricultural and livestock activities has resulted in the deforestation of
pleasing materials (Garay 1987) has caused the mortality of aquatic and
practically all the lowland forests in Costa Rica and the modifi cation of
avian species. The spills are often deliberate either by the sabotage of
indigenous forests up to the boundaries of biological reserves in Nica-
oil pipelines or the discharge of oily residues from port activities and
ragua. Signifi cant areas have been exposed to erosive processes such
from ship's ballast water (Garay et al. 1988). The fl ora and fauna has been
as high-intensity tropical rains, resulting in a greater loss of soil which is
impoverished in the Orinoco delta region due to frequent oil spills from
refl ected by the increased water turbidity.
dilapidated pipelines (RAN 2003).
The sub-system's mangrove ecosystems have been rapidly disappear-
Coastal and riparian developments alter runoff patterns and release pol-
ing over the last 20 years. In the Caribbean Mexico, for example, up
lutants into the aquatic environment, which has considerably degraded
to 65% of mangroves have disappeared (Suman 1994 in UNEP 2000b).
the ecosystems of Colombia. During the 17th century, Spanish colonists
Aquatic habitats are modifi ed by chemical pollution discharged by in-
excavated the Canal del Dique, diverting the course of the Magdalena
dustry. Artifi cial fertilisers leach into groundwater and runoff from agri-
River to fl ow into the Bahía de Cartagena, which converted the bay into
cultural areas into rivers and coastal areas, thus increasing the nitrogen
an estuary, thereby eliminating extensive coral communities. Coral reefs
and phosphorus load of water bodies (Smayda 1990 in GESAMP 2001).
on the central coast of Venezuela are degraded by urban and industrial
development (Puerto Francés-Carenero), resulting in the loss of more
In the Caribbean part of Central America, the coastal zone is under
than 80% of the associated invertebrate species since the mid-1980s
increasing pressure from development activities. The construction of
(Garzón-Ferreira et al. 2000). Coral reefs and associated faunal commu-
tourism facilities and infrastructure has required the deforestation of
nities also disappeared in Morrocoy National Park (Venezuela) in the
mangrove forests and increased erosion which has increased sedimen-
1990s with coral cover reduced from 43% to less than 5%. This mass
tation on reefs.
mortality was related to a severe phytoplankton bloom followed by
ASSESSMENT
49
Causal chain analysis
This section aims to identify the root causes of the environmental and socio-economic impacts resulting from those issues and concerns
that were prioritised during the assessment, so that appropriate policy interventions can be developed and focused where they will yield
the greatest benefi ts for the region. In order to achieve this aim, the analysis involved a step-by-step process that identifi ed the most
important causal links between the environmental and socio-economic impacts, their immediate causes, the human activities and eco-
nomic sectors responsible and, fi nally, the root causes that determine the behaviour of those sectors. The GIWA Causal chain analysis
(CCA) recognises that, within each region, there is often enormous variation in capacity and great social, cultural, political and environ-
mental diversity. The CCA uses a relatively simple and practical analytical model. For further details on the methodology, please refer to
the GIWA methodology in Annex IV.
Causal chain analysis of the Magdalena Basin
The GIWA assessment identifi ed Habitat and community modifi cation
Environmental and socio-economic impacts
as the priority concern in the Colombia & Venezuela sub-system. The
The main environmental impacts of habitat and community modifi ca-
Magdalena Basin was selected for the Causal chain analysis (CCA) as there
tion are:
is a concentration of human activities located here which are resulting
Loss of biodiversity;
in severe habitat modifi cation. A description of the basin can be found
Impacts on estuarine and coastal ecosystems, particularly the loss of
in the regional defi nition section of this report. The focus of the CCA is
coral reefs and mangroves;
to determine the root causes of habitat and community modifi cation in
Changes in community structure; and
the sub-system, so that the driving forces of the issues can be addressed
Increased vulnerability of fl ora and fauna to diseases.
rather than the more obvious causes. This process traces the cause-ef-
fect pathways, from the socio-economic and environmental impacts of
The main socio-economic impacts of habitat and community modifi ca-
the concern identifi ed in the assessment back to the root causes. The
tion are:
root causes can then be targeted by appropriate policy measures in the
Loss of income for the tourism and fi sheries sectors;
Policy options analysis (POA) section. For more detailed information on
Loss of aesthetic and recreational value;
the environmental impacts, the responsible sectors and the immediate
Increased
unemployment;
causes, please refer to the Assessment chapter.
Economic costs of ecosystem restoration;
Recurrent morbidity and increased infant mortality rates; and
Figure 9 shows the causal links between the environmental and socio-
Loss of cultural identity for indigenous people.
economic impacts of the habitat and community mofi ciation concern,
the immediate causes, the responsible economic sectors, and the root
causes that determine the behaviour of these sectors.
50
GIWA REGIONAL ASSESSMENT 3B, 3C CARIBBEAN SEA/COLOMBIA & VENEZUELA, CARIBBEAN SEA/CENTRAL AMERICA & MEXICO
Impacts
Issues
Immediate causes
Sectors/Activities
Root causes
Organic pollution
Loss of biodiversity
Habitat and
Domestic and industrial
Population distribution
community
activities
Impacts on estuarine and
modification
coastal ecosystems,
Chemical pollution
particularly the loss of coral
Mining activities
Institutional weaknesses
reefs and mangroves
Changes in community
Suspended solids
Petroleum activities
structure
Economic problems
Increased vulnerability of flora
and fauna to diseases
Agricultural activities
Oil contamination
Loss of income for the tourism
Knowledge deficiencies
and fisheries sectors
Loss of aesthetic and
recreational value
Increased unemployment
Economic costs of ecosystem
restoration
Recurrent morbidity and
increased infant mortality
rates
Loss of cultural identity for
indigenous people
Figure 9
Causal chain diagram illustrating the causal links for habitat and community modifi cation in the Magdalena Basin (sub-system 3b).
Immediate causes/sector activities
reaches of the basin in Barrancabermeja (Santander), Puerto Nare y Yondó
Immediate causes associated with domestic and industrial activi-
(Antioquia). Large quantities of pollutants are discharged by petroleum-
ties: The Río Grande de la Magdalena Basin is the most populated basin
water separating stations, as well as occasional spills and leakages from
in Colombia and has the highest intensity of socio-economic activi-
oil pipelines (CORMAGDALENA 2002).
ties. Organic material enters the environment in waste from domestic
sources and coff ee, food and beverage industries. These wastes modify
Immediate causes associated with agricultural activities: agro-chemi-
water quality and consequently the health of aquatic ecosystems (COR-
cals used in crop production are used inappropriately and enter aquatic
MAGDALENA 2002).
systems via runoff or leaching into groundwater. Aerial fumigation of
rice, cotton and sorghum with excessive doses of pesticides and herbi-
Immediate causes associated with mining activities: mining activities
cides is a major source of water, air, soil and food contamination (COR-
have degraded forest, soil and water resources in parts of the Magdalena
MAGDALENA 2002).
Basin. Commonly, the practices employed are non-compliant with envi-
ronmental guidelines and highly destructive (CORMAGDALENA 2002).
Root causes
Mining activities in the Magdalena-Cauca Basin have adversely aff ected
Population distribution
the environmental quality of aquatic habitats. Areas where the rivers have
Even though the Colombian coast is relatively sparsely populated, ap-
a limited fl ow rate are particularly vulnerable to chemical pollution and
proximately 80% of the population of Colombia and the majority of eco-
increased sedimentation originating from mining activities. Municipalities
nomic activities are concentrated in the Magdalena-Cauca River Basin.
at greatest risk are riparian to the following rivers: Vetas, Boque in Santa
The water bodies in the basin are, therefore, subjected to a concentration
Rosa del Sur; Serranía de San Lucas; Tarazá in Bajo Cauca; Bagre in the min-
of pollution which aff ects coastal biodiversity. Urban development has
ing region north of Antioquia; and Guavas and Guadalajara in the Ginebra
led to the deterioration of water quality for human use, modifi ed river
district (CORMAGDALENA 2002).
bank habitats due to construction, changed the drainage patterns and
caused a loss of ecosystem functions.
Immediate causes associated with petroleum activities: Magdalena
Basin contains a multitude of petroleum activities including exploration,
Institutional weaknesses
extraction, refi nement and transportation. These activities alter habitats
Lack of integrated management
by consuming large quantities of water and releasing pollutants. Petro-
In general, planning is sectorial with little consideration of the aff ect on
leum activities are concentrated in the upstream areas of the basin, pri-
other economic activities or the environment. There is an absence of an
marily in the municipalities of Neiva and Aipe in Huila, and in the middle
integrated development strategy. The planning process does not incor-
CAUSAL CHAIN ANALYSIS
51
porate environmental impact assessments or mitigation measures. In
the environment. It is now internationally recognised that artifi cial fertiliz-
areas of agricultural development, informal settlements have emerged
ers and pesticides contaminate water resources and impact ecology and
in ecologically sensitive areas as provisions are generally not made to ac-
sanitary conditions (Láñes 2000). In Colombia, sales of herbicides and
commodate migrant workers.
fungicides increased between 1975 and 1995 from 4 555 to 8 322 tonnes
and 4 479 to 7 280 tonnes respectively (MMA & MA 1998). Various incen-
An evaluation of coastal zone management in the sub-system (Steer et
tives were also given for converting forests to arable land and pastures.
al. 1997) concluded that the system of Integrated Coastal Zone Manage-
The high price for illegal crops encourages further deforestation to create
ment had not been adequately adopted and the legal framework regu-
more cultivated areas.
lating activities in the coastal zone was particularly weak.
Ineff ective economic mechanisms for pollution control
The monitoring capacity of the institutions responsible for environmental
Only a limited number of industries have been charged water rates since
management in the basin is inadequate as there is a lack of professional
they were introduced. At present, only 25% of Regional Autonomous
expertise and fi nancial resources. The National Report of the Offi
ce Con-
Corporations (Corporaciones Autónomas Regionales, CAR) make pay-
trolling Public Expenses identifi ed a range of institutional weaknesses in-
able taxes. Industries have therefore no incentive to improve their effi
-
cluding a lack of fi nancial mechanisms and control measures, insuffi
cient
ciency or reduce their waste discharges, even if only a minimal invest-
monitoring, a lack of investment evaluation and inadequate information
ment is required.
dissemination to the public.
At present there are insuffi
cient fi nancial and technological resources to
Armed confl ict
develop adequate treatment systems or to use cleaner technologies dur-
Armed confl ict in the sub-system has resulted from a combination of so-
ing production (CORMAGDALENA 1999). Although the Venezuelan Minis-
cial, political and institutional issues in Colombia. The infl uence of guer-
try of Environment and Natural Resources (MARN) has made some eff ort
rilla armies has allowed the widespread production of illegal crops within
to implement environmental management, its success has been limited
their territories. The land is deforested in order to grow these crops caus-
by a lack of fi nancial and human resources. The environmental problems
ing ecological damage.
of the region require large fi nancial investment in order to reverse degra-
dation trends. Financial mechanisms are required that encourage industry
Economic problems
to restore habitats they have disturbed (República de Venezuela 1995).
Inequity and poverty
In Colombia, industrial production is concentrated in urban areas. Rural
Knowledge defi ciencies
populations survive by increasing cultivated areas and livestock farming
The technologies currently employed by agriculture, mining, fi sheries and
and by growing illegal crops. After 35 years of precarious agrarian reform
other sectors are degrading the environment. There is a lack of studies
in Colombia, agricultural land is owned by relatively few individuals.
evaluating the effi
ciency and environmental impacts of current practices.
12 000 people (0.6% of the population) control 10 million hectares (20%
This has not favoured the adoption of cleaner technologies.
of livestock farming land) and 82.4% of rural properties are small hold-
ings which occupy 15.6% of the national rural territory (ACNUR 2001).
There is a lack of environmental information about the Colombian Carib-
According to The World Bank (2004), Colombia has one of the most con-
bean coast where the sub-system's most important deltas are located,
centrated land distributions in the world, with a land GINI of 0.86. Land
including the Magdalena, Canal del Dique, Sinú-Tinajones, Turbo and At-
distribution inequality is considered to be a source of poverty in Colom-
rato. In particular, the infl uence of upwelling, sediment dynamics and
bia, in addition to low agricultural productivity due to armed confl ict
sea-level rise is poorly documented (Correa 2003).
in rural areas. Both issues, inequality and armed confl ict, are forcing the
poor to overexploit natural resources for their short-term survival, using
Currently there is a dearth of information on the Magdalena River Basin.
shorter crop rotation cycles, clearing forests for agriculture and pastures,
There are several defi ciencies: (i) there is a lack of baseline information; (ii)
and overgrazing livestock.
data is dispersed between the various regional, national and international
institutions; c) the lack of standardized methodologies used to obtain
Inappropriate incentives that encourage unsustainable practices
biophysical and socioeconomic data in coastal zones makes it impossible
Farmers were encouraged to apply agro-chemicals in order to increase
to compare data and information (Steer et al. 1997); d) there is a lack of
agro-productivity. This increased the prevalence of these substances in
information for vulnerability evaluation of coastal zones (INVEMAR 2002);
52
GIWA REGIONAL ASSESSMENT 3B, 3C CARIBBEAN SEA/COLOMBIA & VENEZUELA, CARIBBEAN SEA/CENTRAL AMERICA & MEXICO
e) limited funding for research, assessment and environmental manage-
relations in the coastal zone, deltas, wetlands and river basins; and g) lack
ment; f) insuffi
cient information on the active processes and their inter-
of appropriate information for management purposes.
Causal Chain Analysis of the Central
America & Mexico sub-system
The priority concern for sub-system 3c is habitat and community modi-
Socio-economic impacts:
fi cation. The sub-system includes parts of the Central America countries
Limited employment opportunities for the local population;
draining into the Caribbean and the State of Quintana Roo in Mexico.
Loss of aesthetic and recreational values;
Causal chain analysis (CCA) was performed for the whole sub-system.
Increased infant morbidity and mortality rates;
For detailed information on the physical and socio-economic charac-
Confl icts over resources use and land tenancy.
teristics of the sub-system refer to the regional defi nition chapter. For
more detailed information of the environmental and socio-economic
Immediate causes/sectors
impacts, responsible sectors and immediate causes, please refer to the
Immediate causes associated with agriculture: Runoff from agricultural
Assessment chapter.
lands has adversely aff ected water quality. Pesticides are applied to culti-
vated areas in order to control weeds, plagues, fungi and other diseases,
Figure 10 shows the causal links between the environmental and socio-
and fertilizers (rich in N, P and K) to replace lost nutrients and increase the
economic impacts of the habitat and community mofi ciation concern,
productivity of soils. According to studies made by the OPS and the WHO
the immediate causes, the responsible economic sectors, and the root
in Central America, 50 000 hectares of banana plantations use 117 200
causes that determine the behaviour of these sectors.
tons of polyethylene, polypropylene, fertilizers and nematicides. These
chemicals accumulate in soils, runoff into surface water supplies and leach
Environmental and socio-economic impacts
into groundwater. Other solid residues are also generated including raquis
Environmental impacts:
(225 000 tons) and banana residues (278 000 tons) (Gaitán 1998).
Decreased
vegetation
cover;
Loss and modifi cation of biodiversity;
Immediate causes associated with tourism: In the coastal zone of the
Erosion and sedimentation.
sub-system, many protected areas are accessible to tourists. There is usu-
Impacts
Issues
Immediate causes
Sectors/Activities
Root causes
Sedimentation
Decreased vegetation cover
Habitat and
Agriculture
Population growth
community
Loss and modification of
modification
Agrochemical pollution
biodiversity
Tourism
Microbiological pollution
Institutional weaknesses
Erosion and sedimentation
Solid wastes
Forestry
Limited employment
opportunities for the local
Weak legal framework
River basin modification
population
Fisheries
Loss of aesthetic and
Destructive fishing practices
recreational values
Knowledge deficiencies
Increased infant morbidity and
mortality rates
Conflicts over resources use
and land tenancy
Figure 10 Causal chain diagram illustrating the causal links for habitat and community modifi cation in the Central America & Mexico sub-
system (3c).
CAUSAL CHAIN ANALYSIS
53
ally a confl ict of interest between conserving the natural resources in
of the Central America & Mexico sub-system, large hotel complexes are
these areas and accommodating tourism. Many of the sub-system's natu-
constructed without consideration of the environmental and social costs
ral assets such as the beaches, forests, coral reefs have been degraded as
because central government and industry have the most infl uence in the
a consequence of tourist activities.
decision-making process with limited stakeholder participation.
Immediate causes associated with forestry: Forestry is an important
The institutions responsible for environmental management have insuffi
-
economic sector in Central America. Deforestation is resulting in in-
cient fi nancial and technical resources to adequately monitor and control
creased erosion and sedimentation in the sub-system.
environmental problems. Developers are able to violate planning regula-
tions as their activities are not monitored. There are insuffi
cient economic
Immediate causes associated with the fi sheries sector: Habitats are
and human resources to purchase and operate the necessary equipment
degraded by the employment of trasmallo (fi xed fi shing nets in shallow
for pollution control and monitoring activities. Pollution levels in Guate-
waters), illegal nets, trawling, dynamite and poison.
mala are unknown as there is no institution responsible for water quality
monitoring (FAO 2000).
Root Causes
Population growth
The exploitation of species and other environmental goods and services
Costa Rica has experienced one of the highest rates of population growth
with high commercial value is insuffi
ciently managed. There is little con-
and deforestation in the world. In the last 50 years, the population has
sideration of the periods of reproduction, the population and sustain-
multiplied fi ve-fold and, in the same period, 11 000 km2 of forest, equiva-
ability of the species, and of the economic benefi ts of the species when
lent to the area of Jamaica, have been deforested (Perez and Protti 1978,
they are alive. The institutions responsible for managing the coastal fi sh-
Hartshorn 1983, Bonilla 1985). Several studies have shown the correlation
eries lack the resources to enforce fi sheries regulations. In Nicaragua and
between population growth and deforestation (FAO 2000). Population
in Costa Rica, because the marine and coastal zone is poorly monitored,
growth and the lack of development planning have led to the establish-
fi shing occurs without any controls. Water is used ineffi
ciently, since water
ment of settlements in environmentally sensitive areas.
users are not charged for the costs of treatment and distribution (CEPAL
1995). In Costa Rica, there is a lack of water conservation or management,
With population growth, the demand for land escalates and environ-
particularly in urban areas that consume 80% of the total freshwater ab-
mental degradation intensifi es as urban and agricultural areas expand.
stracted.
Land tenancy confl icts have been provoked mainly in zones of collective
land use. The institutions responsible for land tenure (e.g. in Mexico the
Legal framework
Secretariat of the Agrarian Reformation, National Agrarian Registry and
Because regulations on the use of pesticides and fertilizers are very
Commission for the Regulation of Land Tenancy) have insuffi
cient capac-
weak or non-existent, these materials are applied in excessive quantities
ity to resolve these confl icts.
which do not improve productivity further but, instead, aff ect wildlife
and contaminate superfi cial and underground water supplies. The main
Institutional weaknesses
defi ciency in water law in sub-system 3c is regarding coastal and marine
Many of the root causes behind habitat modifi cation in the Central Amer-
regulations.
ica & Mexico sub-system stem from a lack of institutional capacity. There
are no management plans at a national or regional level governing the
Knowledge
majority of the sub-system's surface water (CATHALAC 1999). There is a
Decision-making processes are hampered by the limited information
lack of regional policies which promote the development of river basin
availability regarding the environmental and economic characteristics,
planning and management. Additionally, the lack of democratic partici-
and environmental degradation trends, of river basins. There are insuf-
pation mechanisms that allow the involvement of all stakeholders has
fi cient research initiatives regarding sustainable technologies and very
hindered cooperation between governments and the community in
few environmental education programmes. There is no reliable informa-
the conservation of habitats. Economic and political interests often take
tion on the recharge rate and capacity of aquifers (CATHALAC 1999). The
precedence over social and environmental improvements, and during
benefi ts that ecosystems in the sub-system provide the population are
the planning and implementation of development projects little consid-
poorly documented or valuated. In the San Juan River Basin, there is lit-
eration is given to its sustainability or the long-term impacts on the envi-
tle knowledge of the capacity of fi sh stocks to recover or the population
ronment. For example, on the Caribbean coasts of some northern areas
dynamics.
54
GIWA REGIONAL ASSESSMENT 3B, 3C CARIBBEAN SEA/COLOMBIA & VENEZUELA, CARIBBEAN SEA/CENTRAL AMERICA & MEXICO
Policy options
This section aims to identify feasible policy options that target key components identifi ed in the Causal
chain analysis in order to minimise future impacts on the transboundary aquatic environment. Recom-
mended policy options were identifi ed through a pragmatic process that evaluated a wide range of
potential policy options proposed by regional experts and key political actors according to a number of
criteria that were appropriate for the institutional context, such as political and social acceptability, costs
and benefi ts, and capacity for implementation. The policy options presented in the report require addi-
tional detailed analysis that is beyond the scope of the GIWA and, as a consequence, they are not formal
recommendations to governments but rather contributions to broader policy processes in the region.
Policy options for the Colombia &
Venezuela sub-system
This Policy option analysis will suggest and evaluate policy responses
Despite considerable eff orts to strengthen environment institutions,
to the main root causes identifi ed in the Causal chain analysis for the
they still lack suffi
cient funding and administrative, monitoring and im-
Magdalena River Basin.
plementation capacity. The sub-system lacks an integrated develop-
ment strategy and environmental legislation and enforcement is weak.
Guerrilla armies hinder environmental protection activities. Poverty
drives communities to overexploit natural resources for their short-
Definition of problem
term survival. Inappropriate incentives and the lack of disincentives en-
courage farmers to excessively use agro-chemicals. The advantages of
Habitat and community modifi cation was selected as the GIWA priority
adopting cleaner technologies are poorly understood by industry and
concern for sub-system 3b, Colombia & Venezuela. Habitat modifi cation
there is a lack of environmental education programmes.
is the consequence of several environmental issues examined under the
other GIWA concerns, in particular, pollution and the overexploitation
Political Characteristics
of living resources. High rates of deforestation are resulting in greater
Various institutions and government agencies in the region are involved
quantities of sediment entering rivers and eventually being discharged
in addressing and managing water-related environmental issues and
into coastal waters where they alter habitats. Aquatic ecosystems have
problems. In Colombia, a basis for Integrated Coastal Zone Manage-
also been degraded by chemical contamination caused by the fumiga-
ment has been initiated, which is relatively advanced but complex. En-
tion of illegal crops and by spills and discharges from petroleum activi-
vironmental policies established to date include the following:
ties. Wetlands and coral reefs have been modifi ed extensively.
POLICY OPTIONS
55
Colombian National Policies
mechanisms required for the consolidation and implementation of en-
National Environmental Policy for the Sustainable Development
vironmental planning programmes, sustainable management of pro-
of Oceanic Spaces, Coastal Zones and Islands of Colombia (MMA,
ductive activities, ecosystem conservation and restoration programmes,
2000): The policy facilitates the sustainable development of ocean
and programmes to improve the population's quality of life.
spaces and the coastal zone, by providing a framework for environ-
mental planning and integrated management, which aims to enhance
Institutional framework
the quality of life for the inhabitants of Colombia and promote the con-
CONPES is responsible for social and economic decisions. It is directed
servation of marine and coastal resources and ecosystems. The policy
by the President of the Republic and includes various ministers. The
aims to develop and execute the concept of "Integrated Coastal Zone
Colombian Ocean Commission (CCO) is an assessment programme
Management", based on scientifi c data and ensuring the participation
which is consulted when developing national policy regarding scien-
of entities responsible for coastal and community management, and
tifi c, technological, economic and environmental matters associated
marine and coastal ecosystem restoration. It also emphasises the need
with the coast or ocean.
to prevent and control marine pollution from land-based sources.
The Ministry of Environment, Housing and Territorial Planning also
National Policy for Interior Wetlands (2001): The objectives and ac-
have functions related to the marine and coastal environment, water
tions proposed by this policy aim to promote the rational use, conserva-
resources and territorial planning. CORMAGDALENA is responsible for
tion and restoration of wetlands at national, regional and local levels.
maintaining navigation routes, port activity, land planning and con-
servation, energy generation and distribution, fi sheries resources, and
National Policy for Biodiversity (1995): The basic principles of the
other renewable resources. The Regional Autonomous Corporations are
policy are that biodiversity is patrimony of the Nation and has strategic
the environmental authorities in their geographical jurisdiction, their
value for the present and future development of Colombia. The benefi ts
duties focused at the executive level on natural resource management.
derived from biodiversity use should be used equitably in agreement
The General Maritime Direction (DIMAR) is a maritime authority, with
with the community. The National Policy for Biodiversity establishes the
an objective to coordinate and control maritime activities (established
general and long-term framework for the national implementation of
by the Decree 2324 of 1984). The National Planning Department has an
the Convention for Biological Diversity which was ratifi ed by Colombia
objective to prepare, implement and evaluate policies, general plans,
and implemented through the Law 165 of 1994.
programmes and projects for the public sector.
National Development Plan (2002-2006): The environmental sustain-
Recommended Policy Options
ability programme of the Colombian government aims to maintain the
Policy Option 1: Integrated River Basin and Coastal Area
natural resource base for the country's future development, to protect
Management
environmental goods and services, and to ensure sustainable produc-
Formulate, develop and implement strategies for the mitigation of
tion trends in order to strengthen the National Environmental System.
impacts from the Magdalena-Cauca Basin that are adversely aff ect-
ing the ocean, coastal zone and islands of the Colombia & Venezuela
he National Policy of Ocean and Coastal Spaces (2002): This policy
sub-system.
harmonizes policies of the diff erent marine productive sectors in order
to promote economic development in accordance with the sustainable
Justifi cation
policies of the Ministry of the Environment. It establishes a framework
River basin management and coastal zone management face diff erent
for the governance of maritime activities in terms of institutional, legal,
challenges in terms of the environmental characteristics and processes,
research and technological aspects (INVEMAR 2002).
the types and intensity of human activities, and the institutional con-
text. It is increasingly recognised, however, that, due to the complex
CONPES Document: Action plan 2002-2004 of the National En-
environmental and socio-economic inter-linkages between river ba-
vironmental Policy for the Sustainable Development of Oceanic
sins and the coastal zone, it is necessary to manage them together as
Spaces, Coastal Zones and Islands of Colombia
an integrated planning unit.
The National Council of Economic and Social Policy (CONPES) approved
on May 10th 2002 a document which identifi ed priority actions, insti-
This policy option proposes integrating basin, delta and wetland man-
tutional actors for its execution, fi nancial resources, and coordination
agement with management actions initiated through the National En-
56
GIWA REGIONAL ASSESSMENT 3B, 3C CARIBBEAN SEA/COLOMBIA & VENEZUELA, CARIBBEAN SEA/CENTRAL AMERICA & MEXICO
vironmental Policy for the Sustainable Development of Oceanic Spaces,
Provide guidance on the control and monitoring of environmental
Coastal Zones and Islands of Colombia. Because human activities in the
threats;
Magdalena-Cauca Basin cause considerable impacts on coastal habitats
Prevent, reduce and control marine and coastal pollution from land-
and marine resources, it is necessary to coordinate actions through in-
based sources;
tegrated river basin and coastal area management.
Formulate and implement precautionary measures to prepare for
predicted climate change induced impacts, in particular sea-level
Integrated management and planning is necessary to mitigate the im-
rise;
pacts on the coastal zone and ocean originating from sources in the
Promote the economic valuation of ecosystem goods and serv-
Magdalena River Basin. The introduction and implementation of an
ices;
integrated management system is essential in adequately managing
Regularly exchange information amongst the countries in the re-
hydrological resources, restoring and ameliorating environmental serv-
gion regarding experiences of environmental management;
ices off ered by the ecosystems, and in optimizing the use of resources
Adopt objectives, policies, common strategies and government
for economic development. It will also improve the effi
ciency of po-
mechanisms that recognise the interconnections between river
litical interventions and reduce potential confl icts between upstream,
basins and the coastal zone;
downstream and coastal stakeholders. Although the system will be in-
Conduct environmental impact assessments;
tegrated, special attention to the specifi c physical and socio-economic
Develop human resources and strengthen institutional capacities;
characteristics of river basins and the coastal zone should be incorpo-
Ensure the participation of stakeholders from both the public and
rated into the strategy.
private sectors, and from a range of geographical locations in the
sub-system.
Table 7 shows a summary of the analysis of this policy option under-
taken by the GIWA regional team.
At the local level:
Strengthen land-use planning in order to control development in
Actions
environmentally sensitive coastal areas;
At the national level:
Identify and valuate natural resources and establish priorities for
Establish a mechanism for coordinating all relevant decision-mak-
sustainable development;
ing entities;
Increase the coverage of wastewater treatment services;
Identify and evaluate the impacts of human activities on aquatic
Protect areas of high ecological value, such as wetlands, deltas and
ecosystems;
estuaries;
Table 7
Performance of policy options for the Colombia & Venezuela sub-system.
Effectiveness
Political viability
Management capacity
Policy option
Option impact
Obstacles and risks
Feasibility
Opposition management
Existing management capacity Capacity building
PO 1: Integrated
Reduce environmental
Financial and administrative
Political opposition if eco-
Stakeholder participation;
Among other national systems:
Establish mechanisms
River Basin and
degradation; optimize the
limitations; current lack of
nomic interests are affected; establish conflict resolution
National Environmental System
for inter-institutional
Coastal Area
use of resources for economic
integration between sectors;
there is already a basis of
mechanisms; increase
(SINA; Decree 632 of 1994);
coordination and information
Management
development; improve
lack of political awareness
a political framework for
awareness of benefits of
Integrated management of coastal exchange; evaluate coordina-
the efficiency of political
of benefits of integrated
river basin, coastal zone and PO through community,
and oceanic areas (PNAOCI, MMA
tion mechanisms; assess the
interventions; and reduce
management; information
wetland management.
institutional and business
2000); Plan for river basin planning progress of CONPES decisions;
potential conflicts amongst
availability; lack of conflict
education programmes.
and management.
develop technical and human
stakeholders.
resolution mechanisms; lack of
resources; and incorporate
political will; and occupation
new policy approaches.
of large areas of Colombia by
Guerrilla armies.
PO 2: Develop
Accurate, timely and relevant
Research and technology
A political framework
Demonstrate economic ben-
National Constitution of Colombia
Develop analytical tools;
scientific
information for effective
institutions lack innovation
already exists through which efits of PO; periodic meetings supports research and science
strengthen the National
capabilities
decision-making; reduce
and are reluctant to adopt new the policy option could be
of scientists, planners, and
(Articles 70, 71 and 209); National
System of Environmental
scientific uncertainties;
methodologies; research is not implemented.
investors; and stakeholder
System of Science and Technology; Research and the National
improved inter-institutional
presented in an understand-
participation will improve
National System of Environmental
System of Science and Tech-
data exchange; better imple-
able manner for policy makers;
the acceptability of manage-
Research; National Environmental
nology; improve information
mentation of international
limited political support and
ment decisions that are
System; Regional Commission
and communication networks;
and regional agreements; and
funds for research, and techni-
based on the studies.
of Science and Technology;
align research with the needs
enhanced monitoring of the
cal and human resources; low
various research institutes and
of coastal zone and river basin
environment.
priority of research policies;
universities.
management; establish inter-
and hindrance of scientific
institutional coordination
activities by guerrilla armies.
mechanisms.
POLICY OPTIONS
57
Formulate strategies to promote sustainable agricultural and for-
Table 7 shows a summary of the analysis of this policy option under-
estry practices;
taken by the GIWA regional team.
Protect traditional knowledge when it benefi ts socio-economic
development, environmental protection and guarantees rights
Actions
and equitable access to coastal resources;
At the national level:
Rehabilitate degraded ecosystems using traditional or new tech-
Establish strategic programmes of interdisciplinary research in
niques appropriate to the local conditions.
order to generate knowledge and information to support inte-
grated coastal zone management;
Policy Option 2: Strengthen the scientific capac-
Strengthen transboundary mechanisms of research, information
ity of the sub-system
exchange and resource management;
Strengthen the scientifi c capacity of the sub-system in order to provide
Develop methodologies for multi-sectorial assessments;
accurate, timely and relevant scientifi c information for informed deci-
Standardise environmental indicators in order to periodically as-
sion-making in the management of the coastal zone and river basins.
sess the environmental quality of the Magdalena River Basin; socio-
economic indicators should be used to monitor human well-being
Justifi cation
and its relationship with environmental degradation trends (MMA
To manage the coastal zone and river basins eff ectively, accurate scien-
2000);
tifi c information is required to allow policymakers to formulate effi
cient
Model the complex interactions of coastal processes so that en-
and innovative policies (BID 1998). The Causal chain analysis identifi ed
vironmental changes and the aff ects of human activities can be
several information defi ciencies which are hindering the management
predicted;
of the Magdalena River Basin and its adjacent coastal ecosystems.
Develop an information management system for policymakers to
Changes to the ecosystems need to be monitored in order to assess
utilise in the decision-making process;
management actions. It is necessary for scientists and decision-mak-
Encourage communication and exchange of knowledge/ideas
ers to cooperate in order to develop policy strategies based on sound
amongst academic, public and private institutions;
scientifi c knowledge (GESAMP 1990).
Disseminate knowledge and scientifi c information to entities re-
sponsible for national and regional coastal management.
To determine management priorities it is fundamental to know the
current status of the sub-system's coastal ecosystems, their economic
At the regional level:
value, and the intensity of impacts they are experiencing. Decision-mak-
Undertake studies on the coastal and delta geomorphology, and
ers in Colombia require a systematic, accessible and accurate informa-
tectonic activity in the sub-system (INVEMAR 2001);
tion tool to initiate sustainable development and social change. The
Predict the vulnerability of ecosystems and societies to sea-level
policy option will improve the pertinence and quality of data collected
rise (INVEMAR 2003b);
and creates an integrated information system to be shared between
Develop an integrated information system to effi
ciently exchange
institutions and used in the design of plans, policies and programmes
and process coastal and marine data;
in order to improve the success of actions. The enhanced monitoring
Research the functional relationships between wetlands, river ba-
of the environment will allow such actions to be evaluated in terms of
sins and the coastal zone;
their positive or negative impacts.
Orientate research programmes to meet the information needs of
integrated river basin and coastal zone management institutions.
58
GIWA REGIONAL ASSESSMENT 3B, 3C CARIBBEAN SEA/COLOMBIA & VENEZUELA, CARIBBEAN SEA/CENTRAL AMERICA & MEXICO
Policy options for theCentral America &
Mexico sub-system (3c)
Policy Options Analysis
Recommended policy options
Two policy options were proposed for the San Juan River Basin.
Policy Option 3: Institutional strengthening
Design and implement a capacity building programme which aims to
Problem Definition
strengthen the relevant institutions and develop human resources, and
In the Central America & Mexico sub-system, habitat and community
economic and legal instruments for the prevention and reversal of deg-
modifi cation was identifi ed as the priority concern. The transboundary
radation trends in the San Juan River Basin.
ecosystems have been severely degraded as a consequence of the ex-
pansion of agriculture, increased pollution loads and inappropriate for-
Justifi cation
estry practices. The analysis of the San Juan River Basin, shared by Costa
In Nicaragua and Costa Rica there is a lack of institutional and techni-
Rica and Nicaragua, showed that the degradation of ecosystems and
cal capacity to implement environmental management policies. Envi-
the overexploitation of the resources are attributed to a range of sec-
ronmental institutions need to be strengthened in order to implement
tors and immediate causes including agricultural expansion, changes in
and evaluate environmental management in the San Juan Basin. There
land use, and development. The expansion of agricultural and livestock
needs to be an institution responsible for the overall coordination of
activities in the basin has resulted in the deforestation of practically all
environmental management activities so that decisions can be harmo-
the lowland forests in Costa Rica and the modifi cation of indigenous
nised. The integrated management of freshwater and coastal resources
forests in Nicaragua. These deforested areas have been exposed to soil
will enable the protection and restoration of environmental goods and
erosion, which has increased water turbidity. In the San Juan Basin, there
services and optimize the effi
ciency of resource use. The coordinating
is a lack of economic alternatives, there has been mass migration from
institution should be responsible for creating research programmes for
rural areas to cities, and the productivity of agriculture has declined.
sustainable technologies, formulating environmental education strate-
gies and establishing pollution control and monitoring facilities.
The environmental problems were traced back to their root causes.
There is a lack of environmental planning and protected areas are inad-
Before developing an integrated management system, a strategic plan
equately managed. The activities of coastal zone and river basin man-
would clearly defi ne the roles and responsibilities of the institutions
agement programmes are not integrated, and both lack the capacity
within the basin. River basin plans should promote economic develop-
to eff ectively regulate activities which are modifying the sub-system's
ment whilst ensuring the sustainable use of natural resources. Education
habitats. There is an absence of environmental education programmes
programmes about the eff ects of increased erosion and sedimentation,
and a lack of research programmes that develop sustainable technolo-
and the impacts on ecosystems and societies will improve the accept-
gies. Many stakeholders are excluded from what is fundamentally a
ability and success of the plans. Stakeholder participation should be a
centralised system of decision-making. Coordination between civil
fundamental component of the decision-making process. Economic
society and State institutions is fl awed, with information exchange and
incentives can encourage producers to adopt sustainable practices that,
dissemination ineff ective. Further, poverty forces the inhabitants of the
for example, reduce erosive processes in the San Juan River Basin.
sub-system to exploit resources at an unsustainable rate; as their land
becomes unproductive they are forced to migrate to more environ-
Actions
mentally sensitive areas.
At a local level:
Develop land-use plans for the San Juan River Basin and its adjacent
coastal zone;
Design environmental education programmes;
POLICY OPTIONS
59
Evaluate the functions, responsibilities and capacity of governmen-
of the bilateral commissions and municipalities of both riparian
tal institutions;
countries;
Increased regulation of agricultural practices;
Formulate strategies to secure national and international funding
Establish regular communication between the private and public
for education and technical training and to purchase equipment.
sectors, and scientifi c community, in order to coordinate decision-
making;
Policy option 4: Promote sustainable production
Formulate strategies to combat soil degradation and inappropriate
Promote the sustainable exploitation and production of environmen-
deforestation.
tal goods and services in order to alleviate poverty and improve the
human well-being of inhabitants in the San Juan River Basin and its
At a regional level:
adjacent coastal zone.
Create a monitoring network of environmental and socio-economic
indicators, which involves the participation of communities from
Justifi cation
both riparian countries;
The relationship between poverty and environmental degradation is
Conduct a cost/benefi t analysis of environmental goods and serv-
particularly evident in Nicaragua and Costa Rica. The socio-economic
ices to establish conservation priorities;
situation of the San Juan Basin is characterised by extreme poverty, high
Enhance the basin information system as a tool for decision-mak-
population growth rates, inadequate sanitation conditions and a lack
ing;
of employment opportunities. Economic hardship and soil degrada-
Establish guidelines for mining activities located in close proximity
tion force inhabitants to migrate to marginal lands, such as mountains
to water bodies;
slopes, which they convert to agricultural lands. To halt this vicious cycle
Design and implement national and regional water policies that
of land degradation, migration and forest colonisation, sustainable pro-
defi ne the responsibilities of Costa Rica and Nicaragua regarding
duction techniques need to be adopted so the land can sustain future
the management of the San Juan River Basin;
generations. Sustainable production, therefore, can not only provide
Support the implementation of the "Strategic Action Programme
environmental benefi ts but can also alleviate poverty by protecting
(SAP) for the integrated management of water resources and the
natural resources and providing alternative income sources. This has
sustainable development of the San Juan River Basin and its coastal
proved eff ective in other countries of Latin America (e.g. Colombia and
zone";
Argentina).
Within the framework of the Mesoamerican Biological Corridor,
establish action plans to streamline and coordinate the activities
The World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD 2002) high-
lighted poverty eradication as the greatest challenge facing the world
Table 8
Performance of policy options for the Central America & Mexico sub-system.
Effectiveness
Political viability
Management capacity
Policy option
Option impact
Obstacles and risks
Feasibility
Opposition management Existing management capacity
Capacity building
PO 1:
Enable the protection and
Limited economic resources to
Large-scale farmers and
Stakeholder participation;
Costa Rica has been developing
Greater institutional coordi-
Institutional
restoration of environmental
fund the proposal; institutional the industrial and mining
use conflict resolution
policies and technical capacity to
nation; decentralization of
strengthening
goods and services; optimize
coordination and communica-
sectors fear that more
mechanisms during the
preserve its national resources
decision-making processes;
the efficiency of resource
tion has proved difficult;
environmental regulations
design and implementation and has developed a significant
increased stakeholder
use; a strategic plan would
information availability; lack
decrease the competitive-
of the PO.
ecotourism industry; the future
participation; develop
clearly define the roles and
of stakeholder cooperation;
ness of their products.
success of which depends on a
technical knowledge and
responsibilities of the relevant lack of political interest in con-
healthy environment.
environmental awareness;
institutions; enhanced quality servation; political instability
provide timely and accurate
of life for the basin's inhabit-
prevents the implementation
information; and organise and
ants; participative democracy; of long-term sustainable
assess scientific research.
and harmonization of policies.
policies.
PO 2: Promote
Environmental benefits; pov-
Absence of a specific policy for
Industries may be unwilling Publicity campaigns about
Costa Rica has developed a National Increase awareness of the
sustainable
erty alleviation by stimulating the promotion of sustainable
to adopt sustainable tech-
benefits of sustainable
Forest Development Plan; the
advantages of developing
production
alternative income sources;
products; a lack of incentives
nologies; PO is more feasible production; stakeholder
Mesoamerican Biological Corridor
the market in sustainable
sustainable use of natural
for the adoption of sustainable
in Costa Rica where there
participation; and economic initiative has built capacity in the
products; create economic
resources; a participative
technologies; limited economic are many environmental
incentives for industries.
institutions of the region; and the
incentives for developing
democracy; harmonization of
resources; time-consuming
initiatives; the international
UNTACD´s Biocommerce initiative
markets in sustainable
national and sectorial policies; and complicated administrative market for sustainable prod-
supports such policies.
products; undertake training
greater binational integra-
processes; fragmented and
ucts is rapidly growing.
programmes in using cleaner
tion; and increased public
weak legislation; and institu-
technologies; and increase
awareness of sustainable
tional weaknesses.
stakeholder participation.
development.
60
GIWA REGIONAL ASSESSMENT 3B, 3C CARIBBEAN SEA/COLOMBIA & VENEZUELA, CARIBBEAN SEA/CENTRAL AMERICA & MEXICO
and called for specifi c measures to address this issue. In the WSSD Plan
At a regional level:
of Implementation, paragraph 13 states that "all countries should pro-
Modernise the forestry sector so that its products are competitive
mote sustainable consumption and production patterns". Some inter-
on the international market;
national initiatives support the trade of goods and services produced
Research and design cleaner production technologies;
in a sustainable manner. Since 1996, the Biotrade Initiative of UNCTAD
Market the basin's sustainable environmental goods and services
has promoted the market for biological products produced from sus-
to the international market.
tainable techniques so they have a higher domestic and international
market value. Further, the DOHA Declaration, within the framework of
At a global level:
the World Trade Organisation, opened negotiations to reduce or elimi-
Identify international partners to support sustainable production
nate customs duty on environmentally sustainable products from de-
initiatives;
veloping countries.
Remove customs duties for the trade in goods and services pro-
duced using sustainable methods;
Actions
In accordance with the Rio + 10 Action Plan, request the transfer of
At a local level:
cleaner technologies;
Design a national and binational policy for trade in sustainable
In accordance with the Rio +10 Action Plan, promote actions which
products;
encourage more sustainable consumption and production pat-
Create economic incentives for the adoption of sustainable produc-
terns.
tion technologies;
Conduct research on locally compatible, sustainable technologies
for chemical industries.
POLICY OPTIONS
61
Conclusions and recommendations
Colombia & Venezuela
Lately, attention has been centred on the urgency to develop integrated
sub-system
water resources management, to adopt preventative rather than reac-
tive measures, to coordinate freshwater, coastal and marine manage-
Habitat modifi cation was selected as the priority concern of the Co-
ment, and encourage information development and exchange.
lombia & Venezuela sub-system. A range of factors are responsible
for the alteration and loss of aquatic ecosystems, many of which were
Feasible policy options were identifi ed that target key components
considered under the other major concerns studied by GIWA, particu-
identifi ed in the Causal chain analysis in order to minimise future im-
larly pollution. Coastal habitats are being degraded by a multitude of
pacts on the transboundary aquatic environment. In Colombia, a basis
issues such as spills and discharges from oil-related activities and rivers
for Integrated Coastal Zone Management has been initiated, which is
discharging land-based sources of pollution including suspended sedi-
relatively advanced but complex. However, due to the environmental
ments, urban and industrial wastewater discharges, and agricultural and
and socio-economic inter-linkages between river basins and the coastal
mining runoff . Coral reefs are severely aff ected by sedimentation, the
zone, the GIWA regional experts recommended developing this further
sediment originating from river catchments which have been subject
by adopting Integrated River Basin and Coastal Area Management (PO 1) in
to intense deforestation and inappropriate land-use practices. In the
the Magdalena-Cauca Basin and its adjacent coastal zone. In support of
1990s, mass coral mortality was associated with a huge phytoplankton
this policy option, there is a need to Strengthen the scientifi c capacity of
bloom that caused severe oxygen depletion; this was attributed to a
the sub-system (PO 2) in order to provide accurate, timely and relevant
climatic anomaly and chemical pollution.
scientifi c information to decision-makers. In the future, the regional
experts anticipate that the impacts of habitat modifi cation in the Co-
Despite considerable eff orts by the governments in recent years,
lombia & Venezuela sub-system will diminish in severity if appropriate
the sub-system is still confronted with the continued degradation of
measures are implemented.
aquatic ecosystems and depletion of their associated resources. En-
vironment institutions remain insuffi
ciently funded and lack adminis-
trative, monitoring and implementation capacity. The absence of an
integrated development strategy results in uncoordinated actions.
Central America & Mexico
Large areas of Colombia are unprotected from development activi-
sub-system
ties as they are controlled by Guerrilla armies. Inappropriate incentives
were given to farmers to use agro-chemicals and there is a lack of
Habitat and community modifi cation was also identifi ed as the priority
economic incentives to control pollution. The advantages of adopting
concern of the Central America & Mexico sub-system. The transbound-
cleaner technologies are poorly understood by industry and there is a
ary ecosystems have been severely degraded as a consequence of agri-
lack of environmental education programmes. Institutional weakness
cultural and urban expansion, increased pollution loads and unsustaina-
is a cross-cutting issue aff ecting socio-economic, technological and
ble forestry practices. As the population of the sub-system continues to
scientifi c development.
increase, the demand for land escalates and environmental degradation
intensifi es. Poverty forces the inhabitants of the sub-system to exploit
62
GIWA REGIONAL ASSESSMENT 3B, 3C CARIBBEAN SEA/COLOMBIA & VENEZUELA, CARIBBEAN SEA/CENTRAL AMERICA & MEXICO
resources at an unsustainable rate; as their land becomes unproductive
projects are rarely considered. Decision-making processes are ham-
they are forced to migrate to more environmentally sensitive areas.
pered by limited information availability and insuffi
cient stakeholder
participation.
The management of protected areas faces the challenge of conserving
sensitive habitats whilst accommodating the growing numbers of tour-
To address these institutional inadequacies, the GIWA regional team rec-
ists. Many of the sub-system's natural assets such as the beaches and
ommend formulating and conducting capacity building programmes
coral reefs have been modifi ed as a consequence of tourist activities.
in order to strengthen the relevant institutions so that they can better
The expansion of agricultural and livestock activities in the San Juan
manage the transboundary waters of the San Juan River Basin (Institu-
Basin has led to the deforestation of practically all the lowland forests in
tional strengthening, PO 3). Unsustainable practices are employed in the
Costa Rica and the modifi cation of indigenous forests in Nicaragua, re-
basin by the forestry, agriculture and fi sheries sector, among others. Sus-
sulting in increased erosion and sedimentation in aquatic systems. The
tainable production can not only provide environmental benefi ts but
excessive use of pesticides and fertilizers in crop production, attributed
can also alleviate poverty by protecting natural resources and providing
to weak or non-existent regulations, also degrade aquatic ecosystems
alternative income sources (Promote sustainable production, PO 4). As a
when entering water bodies via runoff or leaching.
prerequisite, research is needed into locally applicable, sustainable prac-
tices and technologies. Mitigation measures, such as those outlined in
Many of the root causes behind habitat modifi cation in the Central
this report, are needed to be adopted in the short-term in order to halt
America & Mexico sub-system stem from a lack of institutional capac-
or revere the ecosystem degradation trends experienced throughout
ity. Coastal zone and river basin management programmes are not in-
the Central America & Mexico sub-system.
tegrated, and the sustainability or long-term impacts of development
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
63
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reefsatrisk/
para%20analizar/refor_agra/refor_agr.htm (In Spanish).
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69
Annexes
Annex I
List of contributing authors and organisations
Project coordination
Project advisors
Name
Institutional Affiliation
Country
Name
Institutional Affiliation
Country
Participation
Captain Francisco Arias Isaza (D.E.A)
INVEMAR, General Director
Colombia
Department of Planning and
Aaron Hutchins
US Virgin Islands
Assessment, CCA, POA
INVEMAR, Coordinator, Research Program on
Natural Resources
Paula Cristina Sierra-Correa (M.Sc.)
Colombia
Coastal and Marine Management
Sustainable Development and
Christopher Corbin
Saint Lucia
Assessment, CCA, POA
INVEMAR, Coordinator, Research Program on
Environment Unit
Mariacatalina Bernal-Velasquez (M.Sc)
Colombia
Politics and Legislation
Coastal Zone Management Author-
Eugene Ariola
Belize
Assessment, CCA, POA
INVEMAR, Coordinator, Research Program on
ity and Institute
Luz Marelvis Londoño (M.Sc.)
Colombia
the Economic Valuation of Natural Resources
INVEMAR, Coordinator, Research Program on
Walberto Troncoso (M.Sc.)
Colombia
Environmental Monitoring
Regional Task team
Name
Institutional Affiliation
Country
Participation
Adelle Blair
Ministry of Tourism and Environment
Antigua and Barbuda
Assessment, CCA, POA
Abril Mendez
National authority of the Environment, Water Resources Services
Panama
Assessment
Bienvenido Marín Z.
INVEMAR, Coordinator, Research Program on Environmental Quality
Colombia
CCA, POA
Edin Emilio Montufar
National Counsel of Protected Areas
Guatemala
Assessment
Edwin Causado
INVEMAR, Researcher, Research Program on Natural Resources Valuation
Colombia
Assessment
Federico Newmark
INVEMAR, Coordinator, Research Program on the Economic Valuation of Natural Resources
Colombia
CCA, POA
Umbreit
Janin Mendoza
Department of the Environment and Natural Resources
Venezuela
Assessment
José Rincón
National authority of the Environment, Water Resources Services
Panama
CCA,POA
José González Porto
INVEMAR, Researcher, Research Program on the Economic Valuation of Natural Resources
Colombia
CCA, POA
Jesús Garay
INVEMAR, Sub-director of Research Coordination
Colombia
Assessment, CCA, POA
Jaime Garzón F.
INVEMAR, Coordinator of the Research Program on Marine and Coastal Biodiversity and Ecosystems
Colombia
CCA, POA
Lorna Inniss
Costal Zone Management Unit. Ministry of Physical Development and Environment
Barbados
CCA, POA
Mario Coto Hidalgo
Department of the Environment and Energy, National System of Conservation Areas, Tortuguero
Costa Rica
Assessment, CCA, POA
Rafael Romero Mayo
University of Quintana Roo, Political and Economic Studies
México
Assessment, CCA, POA
Ricardo Arthur
Costal Zone Management Unit, Ministry of Physical Development and Environment
Barbados
Assessment
Stacey Wells-Moultrie
Bahamas Environment, Science and Technology Commission (BEST)
The Bahamas
Assessment
70
GIWA REGIONAL ASSESSMENT 3B, 3C CARIBBEAN SEA/COLOMBIA & VENEZUELA, CARIBBEAN SEA/CENTRAL AMERICA & MEXICO
Other advisors from Colombia
Other support
Name
Institutional Affiliation
Name
Institutional Affiliation
Country
Participation
INVEMAR,
INVEMAR- Pontificia Universidad
Andrés Vidal
Colombia
Information search
Juan Manuel Díaz
Coordinator, Research Program on Biodiversity and Ecosystems (until
Javeriana Student
December 2003)
INVEMAR- Pontificia Universidad
Carolina Cardoso
Colombia
Information search
INVEMAR,
Javeriana Student
Jacobo Blanco R.
Researcher, Research Program on the Economic Valuation of Natural
INVEMAR
Resources
Carolina Segura
Colombia
Cartography
Information Systems Laboratory
INVEMAR,
Diana I. Gómez
General Services
Researcher, Research Program on Biodiversity and Ecosystems
INVEMAR
Colombia
Logistics Support
Coordination Group
INVEMAR,
INVEMAR- Pontificia Universidad
Juan Carlos Narvaez
Researcher, Research Program on the Economic Valuation of Natural
Helmut Hiller
Colombia
Information search
Javeriana Student
Resources
INVEMAR- Pontificia Universidad
INVEMAR,
Jeisson Reyes
Colombia
Information search
Javeriana Student
Efrain Viloria Maestre
Researcher, Research Program on the Economic Valuation of Natural
INVEMAR
Resources
Organization of the
Olga Montealegre
Researcher, Research Program on
Colombia
INVEMAR,
second workshop
Jorge Acosta R.
Coastal Management
Researcher, Research Program on Environmental Quality
INVEMAR
INVEMAR,
Pilar Lozano
Colombia
Cartography
Martha L. Gómez
Information Systems Laboratory
Researcher, Research Program on Environmental Quality
Research and Support
Administrative
Environmental experts
IDEAM Institute
Resources Sub-direc-
INVEMAR
Colombia
Support
tion (SRAI)
Consultants
GIWA Coordinators
Name
Professional Skill
Country
Participation
Name
Institutional Affiliation
Amparo Ramos
International Governance
Colombia
POA
Juan Carlos Belausteguigoitia
GIWA, Coordinator for the Southern Hemisphere
Francisco Galán
Public Policies
Colombia
POA
Marcia Marques
GIWA, Coordinator for Latin America and the Caribbean
Sharon Messing
Policy Scientist
Colombia
POA
Special participants
Focal Point Contact Details
Partici-
Name
Institutional Affiliation
Country
pation
Instituto de Investigaciones Marinas y Costeras INVEMAR
Assess-
Luc St-Pierre
UNEP-CAR/RCU; PNUMA-UCR/CAR
Jamaica
AA 1016 Santa Marta- Colombia -or-
ment
Assess-
Cerro Punta Betín, Zona Portuaria. Santa Marta- Colombia
Alan Duncan
UNESCO IOCARIBE
Trinidad and Tobago ment
Fax: +57 5 4312975/ 5761/ 5848
Assess-
William Hogland
Kalmar University
Sweden
ment
Assess-
Jesús Beltrán
CIMAB/GIWA Region 4
Cuba
ment, CCA,
POA
Antonio Villasol
CIMAB/GIWA Region 4
Cuba
CCA, POA
Joaquín Gutierrez
CIEGA-AMA/GIWA Region 4
Cuba
CCA, POA
Bahamas Environment, Science and
Sharrah Moss
Technology Commission (BEST)/
The Bahamas
CCA, POA
GIWA Region 4
Institute of Oceanography, Venezuela/
William Senior
Venezuela
CCA, POA
GIWA Region 4
ANNEXES
71
Annex II
Detailed scoring tables Colombia-Venezuela sub-system (3b)
I: Freshwater shortage
II: Pollution
Weight
Weight
Environmental
Environmental
Environmental issues
Score
Weight
averaged
Environmental issues
Score
Weight
averaged
concern
concern
score
score
1. Modification of stream flow
1
20
Freshwater shortage
0.9
4. Microbiological
1
15
Pollution
1.95
2. Pollution of existing supplies
0
70
5. Eutrophication
1
5
3. Changes in the water table
0
10
6. Chemical
2
15
7. Suspended solids
2
20
Criteria for Economics impacts
Raw score
Score Weight %
8. Solid wastes
2
5
Very small
Very large
Size of economic or public sectors affected
3
40
0 1 2 3
9. Thermal
1
5
Minimum
Severe
Degree of impact (cost, output changes etc.)
1
40
10. Radionuclides
0
5
0 1 2 3
Occasion/Short
Continuous
Frequency/Duration
2
20
11. Spills
3
30
0 1 2 3
Weight average score for Economic impacts
2
Criteria for Economics impacts
Raw score
Score Weight %
Criteria for Health impacts
Raw score
Score Weight %
Very small
Very large
Very small
Very large
Size of economic or public sectors affected
2
30
Number of people affected
2
30
0 1 2 3
0 1 2 3
Minimum
Severe
Minimum
Severe
Degree of impact (cost, output changes etc.)
2
50
Degree of severity
1
40
0 1 2 3
0 1 2 3
Occasion/Short
Continuous
Occasion/Short
Continuous
Frequency/Duration
2
20
Frequency/Duration
1
30
0 1 2 3
0 1 2 3
Weight average score for Economic impacts
2
Weight average score for Health impacts
1.3
Criteria for Health impacts
Raw score
Score Weight %
Criteria for Other social and
Raw score
Score Weight %
community impacts
Very small
Very large
Number of people affected
2
20
Very small
Very large
0 1 2 3
Number and/or size of community affected
1
30
0 1 2 3
Minimum
Severe
Degree of severity
2
40
Minimum
Severe
0 1 2 3
Degree of severity
1
40
0 1 2 3
Occasion/Short
Continuous
Frequency/Duration
2
40
Occasion/Short
Continuous
0 1 2 3
Frequency/Duration
2
30
0 1 2 3
Weight average score for Health impacts
2
Weight average score for Other social and community impacts
1.3
Criteria for Other social and
Raw score
Score Weight %
community impacts
Very small
Very large
Number and/or size of community affected
2
20
0 1 2 3
Minimum
Severe
Degree of severity
2
40
0 1 2 3
Occasion/Short
Continuous
Frequency/Duration
2
40
0 1 2 3
Weight average score for Other social and community impacts
2
72
GIWA REGIONAL ASSESSMENT 3B, 3C CARIBBEAN SEA/COLOMBIA & VENEZUELA, CARIBBEAN SEA/CENTRAL AMERICA & MEXICO
III: Habitat and community modification
IV: Unsustainable exploitation of fish
Weight
and other living resources
Environmental
Environmental issues
Score
Weight
averaged
concern
score
Weight
Environmental
Environmental issues
Score
Weight %
averaged
Habitat and community
concern
12. Loss of ecosystems
2
40
2.6
score
modification
13. Modification of ecosystems or
Unsustainable
14. Overexploitation
3
40
2.2
ecotones, including community
2
60
exploitation of fish
structure and/or species composition
15. Excessive by-catch and
1
10
discards
16. Destructive fishing practices
2
25
Criteria for Economics impacts
Raw score
Score Weight %
Very small
Very large
17. Decreased viability of stock
Size of economic or public sectors affected
3
25
1
10
0 1 2 3
through pollution and disease
Minimum
Severe
18. Impact on biological and
Degree of impact (cost, output changes etc.)
2
40
2
15
0 1 2 3
genetic diversity
Occasion/Short
Continuous
Frequency/Duration
2
35
0 1 2 3
Criteria for Economics impacts
Raw score
Score Weight %
Weight average score for Economic impacts
2.25
Very small
Very large
Size of economic or public sectors affected
2
30
Criteria for Health impacts
Raw score
Score Weight %
0 1 2 3
Minimum
Severe
Very small
Very large
Degree of impact (cost, output changes etc.)
2
50
Number of people affected
1
20
0 1 2 3
0 1 2 3
Occasion/Short
Continuous
Minimum
Severe
Frequency/Duration
3
20
Degree of severity
1
40
0 1 2 3
0 1 2 3
Occasion/Short
Continuous
Weight average score for Economic impacts
2.2
Frequency/Duration
1
40
0 1 2 3
Criteria for Health impacts
Raw score
Score Weight %
Weight average score for Health impacts
1
Very small
Very large
Criteria for Other social and
Number of people affected
2
30
Raw score
Score Weight %
0 1 2 3
community impacts
Minimum
Severe
Very small
Very large
Degree of severity
1
40
Number and/or size of community affected
3
30
0 1 2 3
0 1 2 3
Occasion/Short
Continuous
Minimum
Severe
Frequency/Duration
1
30
Degree of severity
1
40
0 1 2 3
0 1 2 3
Occasion/Short
Continuous
Weight average score for Health impacts
1.3
Frequency/Duration
1
30
0 1 2 3
Criteria for Other social and
Raw score
Score Weight %
Weight average score for Other social and community impacts
1.6
community impacts
Very small
Very large
Number and/or size of community affected
3
30
0 1 2 3
Minimum
Severe
Degree of severity
1
40
0 1 2 3
Occasion/Short
Continuous
Frequency/Duration
1
30
0 1 2 3
Weight average score for Other social and community impacts
1.6
ANNEXES
73
V: Global change
Weight
Environmental
Environmental issues
Score
Weight
averaged
concern
score
19. Changes in the hydrological cycle
2
50
Global change
1.5
20. Sea level change
1
20
21. Increased UV-B radiation as a
1
10
result of ozone depletion
22. Changes in ocean CO2
1
20
source/sink function
Criteria for Economics impacts
Raw score
Score Weight %
Very small
Very large
Size of economic or public sectors affected
2
40
0 1 2 3
Minimum
Severe
Degree of impact (cost, output changes etc.)
1
50
0 1 2 3
Occasion/Short
Continuous
Frequency/Duration
3
10
0 1 2 3
Weight average score for Economic impacts
1.6
Criteria for Health impacts
Raw score
Score Weight %
Very small
Very large
Number of people affected
2
40
0 1 2 3
Minimum
Severe
Degree of severity
1
50
0 1 2 3
Occasion/Short
Continuous
Frequency/Duration
3
10
0 1 2 3
Weight average score for Health impacts
1.6
Criteria for Other social and
Raw score
Score Weight %
community impacts
Very small
Very large
Number and/or size of community affected
2
40
0 1 2 3
Minimum
Severe
Degree of severity
1
50
0 1 2 3
Occasion/Short
Continuous
Frequency/Duration
3
10
0 1 2 3
Weight average score for Other social and community impacts
1.6
Comparative environmental and socio-economic impacts of each GIWA concern
Types of impacts
Environmental score
Economic score
Human health score
Social and community score
Concern
Overall score
Rank
Present (a)
Future (b)
Present (a)
Future (b)
Present (a)
Future (b)
Present (a)
Future (b)
Freshwater shortage
0.90
0.90
2.00
2.00
1.30
1.10
1.30
0.80
1
5
Pollution
1.95
1.60
2.00
2.00
2.00
1.10
2.00
1.50
2
3
Habitat and community
2.60
2.60
2.25
2.30
1.00
0.50
1.60
2.00
2
1
modification
Unsustainable exploitation of fish
2.20
1.60
2.20
2.00
1.30
1.00
1.60
1.40
2
2
and other living resources
Global change
1.50
1.50
1.60
2.00
1.10
1.10
1.60
2.00
2
4
74
GIWA REGIONAL ASSESSMENT 3B, 3C CARIBBEAN SEA/COLOMBIA & VENEZUELA, CARIBBEAN SEA/CENTRAL AMERICA & MEXICO
Annex II
Detailed scoring tables Central America & Mexico sub-system (3c)
I: Freshwater shortage
II: Pollution
Weight
Weight
Environmental
Environmental
Environmental issues
Score
Weight
averaged
Environmental issues
Score
Weight
averaged
concern
concern
score
score
1. Modification of stream flow
3
40
Freshwater shortage
1.8
4. Microbiological
1
5
Pollution
2.6
2. Pollution of existing supplies
2
20
5. Eutrophication
2
10
3. Changes in the water table
1
20
6. Chemical
3
30
7. Suspended solids
3
20
Criteria for Economics impacts
Raw score
Score Weight %
8. Solid wastes
2
10
Very small
Very large
Size of economic or public sectors affected
2
30
0 1 2 3
9. Thermal
1
5
Minimum
Severe
Degree of impact (cost, output changes etc.)
3
50
10. Radionuclides
0
0
0 1 2 3
Occasion/Short
Continuous
Frequency/Duration
2
20
11. Spills
3
20
0 1 2 3
Weight average score for Economic impacts
2.5
Criteria for Economics impacts
Raw score
Score Weight %
Criteria for Health impacts
Raw score
Score Weight %
Very small
Very large
Very small
Very large
Size of economic or public sectors affected
3
40
Number of people affected
1
30
0 1 2 3
0 1 2 3
Minimum
Severe
Minimum
Severe
Degree of impact (cost, output changes etc.)
3
40
Degree of severity
3
50
0 1 2 3
0 1 2 3
Occasion/Short
Continuous
Occasion/Short
Continuous
Frequency/Duration
2
20
Frequency/Duration
1
20
0 1 2 3
0 1 2 3
Weight average score for Economic impacts
2.8
Weight average score for Health impacts
2
Criteria for Health impacts
Raw score
Score Weight %
Criteria for Other social and
Raw score
Score Weight %
community impacts
Very small
Very large
Number of people affected
1
20
Very small
Very large
0 1 2 3
Number and/or size of community affected
2
30
0 1 2 3
Minimum
Severe
Degree of severity
3
40
Minimum
Severe
0 1 2 3
Degree of severity
3
60
0 1 2 3
Occasion/Short
Continuous
Frequency/Duration
3
40
Occasion/Short
Continuous
0 1 2 3
Frequency/Duration
2
10
0 1 2 3
Weight average score for Health impacts
2.6
Weight average score for Other social and community impacts
2.6
Criteria for Other social and
Raw score
Score Weight %
community impacts
Very small
Very large
Number and/or size of community affected
2
25
0 1 2 3
Minimum
Severe
Degree of severity
3
55
0 1 2 3
Occasion/Short
Continuous
Frequency/Duration
1
20
0 1 2 3
Weight average score for Other social and community impacts
2.35
ANNEXES
75
III: Habitat and community modification
IV: Unsustainable exploitation of fish
Weight
and other living resources
Environmental
Environmental issues
Score
Weight
averaged
concern
score
Weight
Environmental
Environmental issues
Score
Weight %
averaged
Habitat and community
concern
12. Loss of ecosystems
3
50
3
score
modification
13. Modification of ecosystems or
Unsustainable exploita-
14. Overexploitation
3
50
2.6
ecotones, including community
3
50
tion of fish
structure and/or species composition
15. Excessive by-catch and
0
0
discards
16. Destructive fishing practices
3
30
Criteria for Economics impacts
Raw score
Score Weight %
Very small
Very large
17. Decreased viability of stock
Size of economic or public sectors affected
3
30
1
10
0 1 2 3
through pollution and disease
Minimum
Severe
18. Impact on biological and
Degree of impact (cost, output changes etc.)
3
40
1
10
0 1 2 3
genetic diversity
Occasion/Short
Continuous
Frequency/Duration
3
30
0 1 2 3
Criteria for Economics impacts
Raw score
Score Weight %
Weight average score for Economic impacts
3
Very small
Very large
Size of economic or public sectors affected
1
40
Criteria for Health impacts
Raw score
Score Weight %
0 1 2 3
Minimum
Severe
Very small
Very large
Degree of impact (cost, output changes etc.)
1
50
Number of people affected
1
34
0 1 2 3
0 1 2 3
Occasion/Short
Continuous
Minimum
Severe
Frequency/Duration
1
10
Degree of severity
1
33
0 1 2 3
0 1 2 3
Occasion/Short
Continuous
Weight average score for Economic impacts
1
Frequency/Duration
1
33
0 1 2 3
Criteria for Health impacts
Raw score
Score Weight %
Weight average score for Health impacts
1
Very small
Very large
Criteria for Other social and
Number of people affected
0
0
Raw score
Score Weight %
0 1 2 3
community impacts
Minimum
Severe
Very small
Very large
Degree of severity
0
0
Number and/or size of community affected
1
20
0 1 2 3
0 1 2 3
Occasion/Short
Continuous
Minimum
Severe
Frequency/Duration
0
0
Degree of severity
3
40
0 1 2 3
0 1 2 3
Occasion/Short
Continuous
Weight average score for Health impacts
0
Frequency/Duration
3
40
0 1 2 3
Criteria for Other social and
Raw score
Score Weight %
Weight average score for Other social and community impacts
2.6
community impacts
Very small
Very large
Number and/or size of community affected
2
20
0 1 2 3
Minimum
Severe
Degree of severity
2
40
0 1 2 3
Occasion/Short
Continuous
Frequency/Duration
3
40
0 1 2 3
Weight average score for Other social and community impacts
2.4
76
GIWA REGIONAL ASSESSMENT 3B, 3C CARIBBEAN SEA/COLOMBIA & VENEZUELA, CARIBBEAN SEA/CENTRAL AMERICA & MEXICO
V: Global change
Weight
Environmental
Environmental issues
Score
Weight
averaged
concern
score
19. Changes in the hydrological cycle
2
40
Global change
1.8
20. Sea level change
2
40
21. Increased UV-B radiation as a
0
0
result of ozone depletion
22. Changes in ocean CO2
1
20
source/sink function
Criteria for Economics impacts
Raw score
Score Weight %
Very small
Very large
Size of economic or public sectors affected
3
33
0 1 2 3
Minimum
Severe
Degree of impact (cost, output changes etc.)
3
34
0 1 2 3
Occasion/Short
Continuous
Frequency/Duration
3
33
0 1 2 3
Weight average score for Economic impacts
3
Criteria for Health impacts
Raw score
Score Weight %
Very small
Very large
Number of people affected
2
30
0 1 2 3
Minimum
Severe
Degree of severity
2
60
0 1 2 3
Occasion/Short
Continuous
Frequency/Duration
3
10
0 1 2 3
Weight average score for Health impacts
2.1
Criteria for Other social and
Raw score
Score Weight %
community impacts
Very small
Very large
Number and/or size of community affected
3
33
0 1 2 3
Minimum
Severe
Degree of severity
3
34
0 1 2 3
Occasion/Short
Continuous
Frequency/Duration
3
33
0 1 2 3
Weight average score for Other social and community impacts
3
Comparative environmental and socio-economic impacts of each GIWA concern
Types of impacts
Environmental score
Economic score
Human health score
Social and community score
Concern
Overall score
Rank
Present (a)
Future (b)
Present (a)
Future (b)
Present (a)
Future (b)
Present (a)
Future (b)
Freshwater shortage
1.80
2.50
2.50
3.00
2.00
2.00
2.60
3.00
2.43
4
Pollution
2.60
2.10
2.80
3.00
2.60
2.40
2.35
2.00
2.48
2
Habitat and community modifica-
3.00
2.80
3.00
2.80
1.00
1.00
2.60
2.00
2.27
1
tion
Unsustainable exploitation of fish
2.60
3.00
1.00
2.00
0.00
2.30
2.40
2.60
1.99
3
and other living resources
Global change
1.80
3.00
3.00
3.00
2.10
3.00
3.00
3.00
2.74
5
ANNEXES
77
Annex III
Protocols of the Cartagena Convention
The Convention for the Protection and Development of the Marine
gion in which it exercises sovereignty, or sovereign rights or jurisdiction:
Environment in the Wider Caribbean Region (Cartagena Convention)
(i) areas that require protection to safeguard their special value; and (ii)
was adopted in Cartagena, Colombia, in March 1983 and entered into
threatened or endangered species of fl ora and fauna. Each Party shall
force in October 1986, for the legal implementation of the Action Plan
regulate and, where necessary, prohibit activities having adverse eff ects
for the Caribbean Environment Programme (UNEP/CEP 1983). The
on these areas and species. Each Party shall endeavour to cooperate
Cartagena Convention has been supplemented by three Protocols,
in the enforcement of these measures, without prejudice to the sov-
described below, in respect of Cooperation in Combating Oil Spills,
ereignty, or sovereign rights or jurisdiction of other Parties. Each Party,
Specially Protected Areas and Wildlife, and Pollution from Land-Based
to the extent possible, consistent with each Parties's legal system, shall
Sources and Activities.
manage species of fauna and fl ora with the objective of preventing
species from becoming endangered or threatened.
The Protocol Concerning Cooperation in Com-
bating Oil Spills
The Protocol Concerning Marine Pollution from
The Protocol was also adopted in 1983 and entered into force in Octo-
Land-Based Sources and Activities (LBS)
ber 1986. This Protocol applies to oil spill incidents which have resulted
The adoption of this Protocol took place in October 1999 in Aruba. Six-
in, or which pose a signifi cant threat of, pollution to the marine and
teen Member States signed the Final Act to adopt the Protocol, and six
coastal environment of the Wider Caribbean Region or which adversely
(Colombia, Costa Rica, Dominican Republic, France, the Netherlands,
aff ect the related interests of one or more of the Contracting Parties. The
and the United States of America) have signed the Protocol itself. The
Parties shall, within their capabilities, cooperate in taking all necessary
protocol will enter into force after it has been ratifi ed by nine Member
measures, both preventive and remedial, for the protection of the ma-
States following 2 COP. Each country shall, in accordance with its laws,
rine and coastal environment of the Wider Caribbean, particularly the
the provisions of this Protocol, and international law, take appropriate
coastal areas of the islands of the region, from oil spill incidents. The Par-
measures to prevent, reduce and control pollution of the Convention
ties shall, within their capabilities, establish and maintain, or ensure the
area from land-based sources and activities, using for this purpose the
establishment and maintenance of the means of responding to oil spill
best practicable means at its disposal and in accordance with its capa-
incidents and shall endeavour to reduce the risk thereof. Such means
bilities. Each country shall develop and implement appropriate plans,
shall include the enactment, as necessary, of relevant legislation, the
programmes and measures. In such plans, programmes and measures,
preparation of contingency plans, the identifi cation and development
each country shall adopt eff ective means of preventing, reducing or
of the capability to respond to an oil spill incident and the designation
controlling pollution of the Convention area from land-based sources
of an authority responsible for the implementation of this Protocol.
and activities on its territory, including the use of most appropriate tech-
nology and management approaches such as integrated coastal area
The Protocol Concerning Specially Protected
management. Countries shall, as appropriate, and having due regard to
Areas and Wildlife (SPAW)
their laws and their individual social, economic and environmental char-
The Protocol was adopted in January 1990 and entered into force in
acteristics and the characteristics of a specifi c area or sub-region, jointly
June 2000, and there have already been 11 COP. Every Party to this Pro-
develop sub-regional and regional plans, programmes and measures
tocol shall, in accordance with its laws and regulations and the terms
to prevent, reduce and control pollution of the Convention area from
of the Protocol, take the necessary measures to protect, preserve and
land-based sources and activities.
manage in a sustainable way, within areas of the Wider Caribbean re-
78
GIWA REGIONAL ASSESSMENT 3B, 3C CARIBBEAN SEA/COLOMBIA & VENEZUELA, CARIBBEAN SEA/CENTRAL AMERICA & MEXICO
The Global International
Waters Assessment
This report presents the results of the Global International Waters
Adequately managing the world's aquatic resources for the benefi t of
Assessment (GIWA) of the transboundary waters of the Caribbean
all is, for a variety of reasons, a very complex task. The liquid state of
Sea sub-systems 3b and 3c. This and the subsequent chapter off er a
the most of the world's water means that, without the construction
background that describes the impetus behind the establishment of
of reservoirs, dams and canals it is free to fl ow wherever the laws of
GIWA, its objectives and how the GIWA was implemented.
nature dictate. Water is, therefore, a vector transporting not only a
wide variety of valuable resources but also problems from one area
to another. The effl
uents emanating from environmentally destructive
activities in upstream drainage areas are propagated downstream
The need for a global
and can aff ect other areas considerable distances away. In the case of
international waters
transboundary river basins, such as the Nile, Amazon and Niger, the
assessment
impacts are transported across national borders and can be observed
in the numerous countries situated within their catchments. In the case
of large oceanic currents, the impacts can even be propagated between
Globally, people are becoming increasingly aware of the degradation of
continents (AMAP 1998). Therefore, the inextricable linkages within
the world's water bodies. Disasters from fl oods and droughts, frequently
and between both freshwater and marine environments dictates that
reported in the media, are considered to be linked with ongoing global
management of aquatic resources ought to be implemented through
climate change (IPCC 2001), accidents involving large ships pollute public
a drainage basin approach.
beaches and threaten marine life and almost every commercial fi sh stock
is exploited beyond sustainable limits - it is estimated that the global
In addition, there is growing appreciation of the incongruence
stocks of large predatory fi sh have declined to less that 10% of pre-
between the transboundary nature of many aquatic resources and the
industrial fi shing levels (Myers & Worm 2003). Further, more than 1 billion
traditional introspective nationally focused approaches to managing
people worldwide lack access to safe drinking water and 2 billion people
those resources. Water, unlike laws and management plans, does not
lack proper sanitation which causes approximately 4 billion cases of
respect national borders and, as a consequence, if future management
diarrhoea each year and results in the death of 2.2 million people, mostly
of water and aquatic resources is to be successful, then a shift in focus
children younger than fi ve (WHO-UNICEF 2002). Moreover, freshwater
towards international cooperation and intergovernmental agreements
and marine habitats are destroyed by infrastructure developments,
is required (UN 1972). Furthermore, the complexity of managing the
dams, roads, ports and human settlements (Brinson & Malvárez 2002,
world's water resources is exacerbated by the dependence of a great
Kennish 2002). As a consequence, there is growing public concern
variety of domestic and industrial activities on those resources. As a
regarding the declining quality and quantity of the world's aquatic
consequence, cross-sectoral multidisciplinary approaches that integrate
resources because of human activities, which has resulted in mounting
environmental, socio-economic and development aspects into
pressure on governments and decision makers to institute new and
management must be adopted. Unfortunately however, the scientifi c
innovative policies to manage those resources in a sustainable way
information or capacity within each discipline is often not available or
ensuring their availability for future generations.
is inadequately translated for use by managers, decision makers and
GLOBAL INTERNATIONAL WATERS ASSESSMENT
i
policy developers. These inadequacies constitute a serious impediment
The Global Environment Facility (GEF)
to the implementation of urgently needed innovative policies.
The Global Environment Facility forges international co-operation and fi nances actions to address
six critical threats to the global environment: biodiversity loss, climate change, degradation of
international waters, ozone depletion, land degradation, and persistent organic pollutants (POPs).
Continual assessment of the prevailing and future threats to aquatic
The overall strategic thrust of GEF-funded international waters activities is to meet the incremental
ecosystems and their implications for human populations is essential if
costs of: (a) assisting groups of countries to better understand the environmental concerns of
their international waters and work collaboratively to address them; (b) building the capacity
governments and decision makers are going to be able to make strategic
of existing institutions to utilise a more comprehensive approach for addressing transboundary
policy and management decisions that promote the sustainable use of
water-related environmental concerns; and (c) implementing measures that address the priority
transboundary environmental concerns. The goal is to assist countries to utilise the full range of
those resources and respond to the growing concerns of the general
technical, economic, fi nancial, regulatory, and institutional measures needed to operationalise
public. Although many assessments of aquatic resources are being
sustainable development strategies for international waters.
conducted by local, national, regional and international bodies, past
United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)
assessments have often concentrated on specifi c themes, such as
United Nations Environment Programme, established in 1972, is the voice for the environment
biodiversity or persistent toxic substances, or have focused only on
within the United Nations system. The mission of UNEP is to provide leadership and encourage
partnership in caring for the environment by inspiring, informing, and enabling nations and
marine or freshwaters. A globally coherent, drainage basin based
peoples to improve their quality of life without compromising that of future generations.
assessment that embraces the inextricable links between transboundary
UNEP work encompasses:
freshwater and marine systems, and between environmental and
Assessing global, regional and national environmental conditions and trends;
Developing international and national environmental instruments;
societal issues, has never been conducted previously.
Strengthening institutions for the wise management of the environment;
Facilitating the transfer of knowledge and technology for sustainable development;
Encouraging new partnerships and mind-sets within civil society and the private sector.
International call for action
University of Kalmar
University of Kalmar hosts the GIWA Co-ordination Offi ce and provides scientifi c advice and
administrative and technical assistance to GIWA. University of Kalmar is situated on the coast of
The need for a holistic assessment of transboundary waters in order to
the Baltic Sea. The city has a long tradition of higher education; teachers and marine offi cers have
been educated in Kalmar since the middle of the 19th century. Today, natural science is a priority
respond to growing public concerns and provide advice to governments
area which gives Kalmar a unique educational and research profi le compared with other smaller
universities in Sweden. Of particular relevance for GIWA is the established research in aquatic and
and decision makers regarding the management of aquatic resources
environmental science. Issues linked to the concept of sustainable development are implemented
was recognised by several international bodies focusing on the global
by the research programme Natural Resources Management and Agenda 21 Research School.
environment. In particular, the Global Environment Facility (GEF)
Since its establishment GIWA has grown to become an integral part of University activities.
The GIWA Co-ordination offi ce and GIWA Core team are located at the Kalmarsund Laboratory, the
observed that the International Waters (IW) component of the GEF
university centre for water-related research. Senior scientists appointed by the University are actively
suff ered from the lack of a global assessment which made it diffi
cult
involved in the GIWA peer-review and steering groups. As a result of the cooperation the University
can offer courses and seminars related to GIWA objectives and international water issues.
to prioritise international water projects, particularly considering
the inadequate understanding of the nature and root causes of
environmental problems. In 1996, at its fourth meeting in Nairobi, the
causes of degradation of the transboundary aquatic environment and
GEF Scientifi c and Technical Advisory Panel (STAP), noted that: "Lack of
options for addressing them. These pro cesses led to the development
an International Waters Assessment comparable with that of the IPCC, the
of the Global International Waters Assessment (GIWA) that would be
Global Biodiversity Assessment, and the Stratospheric Ozone Assessment,
implemented by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) in
was a unique and serious impediment to the implementation of the
conjunction with the University of Kalmar, Sweden, on behalf of the GEF.
International Waters Component of the GEF".
The GIWA was inaugurated in Kalmar in October 1999 by the Executive
Director of UNEP, Dr. Klaus Töpfer, and the late Swedish Minister of the
The urgent need for an assessment of the causes of environmental
Environment, Kjell Larsson. On this occasion Dr. Töpfer stated: "GIWA
degradation was also highlighted at the UN Special Session on
is the framework of UNEP´s global water assessment strategy and will
the Environment (UNGASS) in 1997, where commitments were
enable us to record and report on critical water resources for the planet for
made regarding the work of the UN Commission on Sustainable
consideration of sustainable development management practices as part of
Development (UNCSD) on freshwater in 1998 and seas in 1999. Also in
our responsibilities under Agenda 21 agreements of the Rio conference".
1997, two international Declarations, the Potomac Declaration: Towards
enhanced ocean security into the third millennium, and the Stockholm
The importance of the GIWA has been further underpinned by the UN
Statement on inter action of land activities, freshwater and enclosed
Millennium Development Goals adopted by the UN General Assembly
seas, specifi cally emphasised the need for an investigation of the root
in 2000 and the Declaration from the World Summit on Sustainable
ii
REGIONAL ASSESSMENTS
Development in 2002. The development goals aimed to halve the
International waters and transboundary issues
proportion of people without access to safe drinking water and basic
The term "international waters", as used for the purposes of the GEF Operational Strategy,
sanitation by the year 2015 (United Nations Millennium Declaration
includes the oceans, large marine ecosystems, enclosed or semi-enclosed seas and estuaries, as
well as rivers, lakes, groundwater systems, and wetlands with transboundary drainage basins
2000). The WSSD also calls for integrated management of land, water and
or common borders. The water-related ecosystems associated with these waters are considered
living resources (WSSD 2002) and, by 2010, the Reykjavik Declaration on
integral parts of the systems.
The term "transboundary issues" is used to describe the threats to the aquatic environment
Responsible Fisheries in the Marine Ecosystem should be implemented
linked to globalisation, international trade, demographic changes and technological advancement,
by all countries that are party to the declaration (FAO 2001).
threats that are additional to those created through transboundary movement of water. Single
country policies and actions are inadequate in order to cope with these challenges and this makes
them transboundary in nature.
The international waters area includes numerous international conventions, treaties, and
agreements. The architecture of marine agreements is especially complex, and a large number
The conceptual framework
of bilateral and multilateral agreements exist for transboundary freshwater basins. Related
conventions and agreements in other areas increase the complexity. These initiatives provide
and objectives
a new opportunity for cooperating nations to link many different programmes and instruments
into regional comprehensive approaches to address international waters.
Considering the general decline in the condition of the world's aquatic
the large-scale deforestation of mangroves for ponds (Primavera 1997).
resources and the internationally recognised need for a globally
Within the GIWA, these "non-hydrological" factors constitute as large
coherent assessment of transboundary waters, the primary objectives
a transboundary infl uence as more traditionally recognised problems,
of the GIWA are:
such as the construction of dams that regulate the fl ow of water into
To provide a prioritising mechanism that allows the GEF to focus
a neighbouring country, and are considered equally important. In
their resources so that they are used in the most cost eff ective
addition, the GIWA recognises the importance of hydrological units that
manner to achieve signifi cant environmental benefi ts, at national,
would not normally be considered transboundary but exert a signifi cant
regional and global levels; and
infl uence on transboundary waters, such as the Yangtze River in China
To highlight areas in which governments can develop and
which discharges into the East China Sea (Daoji & Daler 2004) and the
implement strategic policies to reduce environmental degradation
Volga River in Russia which is largely responsible for the condition of
and improve the management of aquatic resources.
the Caspian Sea (Barannik et al. 2004). Furthermore, the GIWA is a truly
regional assessment that has incorporated data from a wide range of
In order to meet these objectives and address some of the current
sources and included expert knowledge and information from a wide
inadequacies in international aquatic resources management, the GIWA
range of sectors and from each country in the region. Therefore, the
has incorporated four essential elements into its design:
transboundary concept adopted by the GIWA extends to include
A broad transboundary approach that generates a truly regional
impacts caused by globalisation, international trade, demographic
perspective through the incorporation of expertise and existing
changes and technological advances and recognises the need for
information from all nations in the region and the assessment of
international cooperation to address them.
all factors that infl uence the aquatic resources of the region;
A drainage basin approach integrating freshwater and marine
systems;
A multidisciplinary approach integrating environmental and socio-
The organisational structure and
economic information and expertise; and
implementation of the GIWA
A coherent assessment that enables global comparison of the
results.
The scale of the assessment
Initially, the scope of the GIWA was confi ned to transboundary waters
The GIWA builds on previous assessments implemented within the GEF
in areas that included countries eligible to receive funds from the GEF.
International Waters portfolio but has developed and adopted a broader
However, it was recognised that a truly global perspective would only
defi nition of transboundary waters to include factors that infl uence the
be achieved if industrialised, GEF-ineligible regions of the world were
quality and quantity of global aquatic resources. For example, due to
also assessed. Financial resources to assess the GEF-eligible countries
globalisation and international trade, the market for penaeid shrimps
were obtained primarily from the GEF (68%), the Swedish International
has widened and the prices soared. This, in turn, has encouraged
Development Cooperation Agency (Sida) (18%), and the Finnish
entrepreneurs in South East Asia to expand aquaculture resulting in
Department for International Development Cooperation (FINNIDA)
GLOBAL INTERNATIONAL WATERS ASSESSMENT
iii
1b
1c
1d
16
15
11
14
12
1a
13
17
28
10
18
25
30
9
19
23
7
22
8
31
6
24
33
20
34
26
2
5
27
50
51
32
21
36
37
41
52
4
49
53
43
54
55
65
42
3
56
42
46
42
47
62
40b
57
40a
40a
47
47
45b
59
39
45a
58
64
60
44
38
61
63
66
© GIWA 2006
1a Russian Arctic (4 LMEs)
8 Gulf of St Lawrence
17 Baltic
Sea
(LME)
26 California Current (LME)
38 Patagonian Shelf (LME)
45b Indian Ocean Islands
52 Arabian
Sea
(LME)
61 Great
Australian
Bight
1b Arctic
Greenland
(LME)
9 Newfoundland Shelf (LME)
18 North
Sea
(LME)
27 Gulf of California (LME)
39 Brazil Current (LME)
46 Somali Coastal
53 Bay of Bengal
62 Pacifi c Islands
1c Arctic
European/Atlantic
10 Baffi
n Bay, Labrador Sea,
19 Celtic-Biscay Shelf (LME)
28 Bering Sea (LME)
40a Northeast Brazil
Current (LME)
54 South China Sea (2 LMEs)
63 Tasman
Sea
1d Arctic North American
Canadian Archipelago
20 Iberian Coastal Sea (LME)
30 Sea of Okhotsk (LME)
Shelf (2 LMEs)
47 East
African
Rift
55 Mekong
River
64 Humboldt Current (LME)
2
Gulf of Mexico (LME)
11 Barents
Sea
(LME)
21 North Africa and
31 Oyashio Current (LME)
40b Amazon
Valley Lakes
56 Sulu-Celebes Sea (LME)
65 Eastern Equatorial
3 Caribbean
Sea
(LME)
12 Norwegian
Sea
(LME)
Nile River Basin (LME)
32 Kuroshio Current (LME)
41 Canary Current (LME)
49 Red Sea and
57 Indonesian
Seas
(LME)
Pacifi c (LME)
4 Caribbean
Islands
(LME)
13 Faroe
plateau
22 Black Sea (LME)
33 Sea
of
Japan
(LME)
42 Guinea Current (LME)
Gulf of Aden (LME)
58 North Australian
66 Antarctic (LME)
5
Southeast Shelf (LME)
14 Iceland
Shelf
(LME)
23 Caspian
Sea
34 Yellow Sea (LME)
43 Lake Chad
50 Euphrates and
Shelf (LME)
6 Northeast Shelf (LME)
15 East Greenland Shelf (LME)
24 Aral Sea
36 East China Sea (LME)
44 Benguela Current (LME)
Tigris River Basin
59 Coral
Sea
Basin
7
Scotian Shelf (LME)
16 West Greenland Shelf (LME)
25 Gulf of Alaska (LME)
37 Hawaiian Archipelago (LME)
45a Agulhas Current (LME)
51 Jordan
60 Great Barrier Reef (LME)
Figure 1
The 66 transboundary regions assessed within the GIWA project.
(10%). Other contributions were made by Kalmar Municipality, the
Large Marine Ecocsystems (LMEs)
University of Kalmar and the Norwegian Government. The assessment of
Large Marine Ecosystems (LMEs) are regions of ocean space encompassing coastal areas from river
regions ineligible for GEF funds was conducted by various international
basins and estuaries to the seaward boundaries of continental shelves and the outer margin of the
major current systems. They are relatively large regions on the order of 200 000 km2 or greater,
and national organisations as in-kind contributions to the GIWA.
characterised by distinct: (1) bathymetry, (2) hydrography, (3) productivity, and (4) trophically
dependent populations.
The Large Marine Ecosystems strategy is a global effort for the assessment and management
In order to be consistent with the transboundary nature of many of the
of international coastal waters. It developed in direct response to a declaration at the 1992
world's aquatic resources and the focus of the GIWA, the geographical
Rio Summit. As part of the strategy, the World Conservation Union (IUCN) and National Oceanic
and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) have joined in an action program to assist developing
units being assessed have been designed according to the watersheds
countries in planning and implementing an ecosystem-based strategy that is focused on LMEs as
of discrete hydrographic systems rather than political borders (Figure 1).
the principal assessment and management units for coastal ocean resources. The LME concept is
also adopted by GEF that recommends the use of LMEs and their contributing freshwater basins
The geographic units of the assessment were determined during the
as the geographic area for integrating changes in sectoral economic activities.
preparatory phase of the project and resulted in the division of the
world into 66 regions defi ned by the entire area of one or more
The global network
catchments areas that drains into a single designated marine system.
In each of the 66 regions, the assessment is conducted by a team of
These marine systems often correspond to Large Marine Ecosystems
local experts that is headed by a Focal Point (Figure 2). The Focal Point
(LMEs) (Sherman 1994, IOC 2002).
can be an individual, institution or organisation that has been selected
on the basis of their scientifi c reputation and experience implementing
Considering the objectives of the GIWA and the elements incorporated
international assessment projects. The Focal Point is responsible
into its design, a new methodology for the implementation of the
for assembling members of the team and ensuring that it has the
assessment was developed during the initial phase of the project. The
necessary expertise and experience in a variety of environmental
methodology focuses on fi ve major environmental concerns which
and socio-economic disciplines to successfully conduct the regional
constitute the foundation of the GIWA assessment; Freshwater shortage,
assessment. The selection of team members is one of the most critical
Pollution, Habitat and community modifi cation, Overexploitation of fi sh
elements for the success of GIWA and, in order to ensure that the
and other living resources, and Global change. The GIWA methodology
most relevant information is incorporated into the assessment, team
is outlined in the following chapter.
members were selected from a wide variety of institutions such as
iv
REGIONAL ASSESSMENTS
an assessment did not exist. Therefore, in order to implement the GIWA,
Steering Group
a new methodology that adopted a multidisciplinary, multi-sectoral,
multi-national approach was developed and is now available for the
implementation of future international assessments of aquatic resources.
GIWA Partners
IGOs, NGOs,
Core
Thematic
The GIWA is comprised of a logical sequence of four integrated
Scientific institutions,
Team
Task Teams
private sector, etc
components. The fi rst stage of the GIWA is called Scaling and is a
66 Regional
process by which the geographic area examined in the assessment is
Focal Points
defi ned and all the transboundary waters within that area are identifi ed.
and Teams
Once the geographic scale of the assessment has been defi ned, the
Figure 2
The organisation of the GIWA project.
assessment teams conduct a process known as Scoping in which the
magnitude of environmental and associated socio-economic impacts
universities, research institutes, government agencies, and the private
of Freshwater shortage, Pollution, Habitat and community modifi cation,
sector. In addition, in order to ensure that the assessment produces a
Unsustainable exploitation of fi sh and other living resources, and Global
truly regional perspective, the teams should include representatives
change is assessed in order to identify and prioritise the concerns
from each country that shares the region.
that require the most urgent intervention. The assessment of these
predefi ned concerns incorporates the best available information and
In total, more than 1 000 experts have contributed to the implementation
the knowledge and experience of the multidisciplinary, multi-national
of the GIWA illustrating that the GIWA is a participatory exercise that
assessment teams formed in each region. Once the priority concerns
relies on regional expertise. This participatory approach is essential
have been identifi ed, the root causes of these concerns are identifi ed
because it instils a sense of local ownership of the project, which
during the third component of the GIWA, Causal chain analysis. The root
ensures the credibility of the fi ndings and moreover, it has created a
causes are determined through a sequential process that identifi es, in
global network of experts and institutions that can collaborate and
turn, the most signifi cant immediate causes followed by the economic
exchange experiences and expertise to help mitigate the continued
sectors that are primarily responsible for the immediate causes and
degradation of the world's aquatic resources.
fi nally, the societal root causes. At each stage in the Causal chain
analysis, the most signifi cant contributors are identifi ed through an
analysis of the best available information which is augmented by the
expertise of the assessment team. The fi nal component of the GIWA is
GIWA Regional reports
the development of Policy options that focus on mitigating the impacts
of the root causes identifi ed by the Causal chain analysis.
The GIWA was established in response to growing concern among the
general public regarding the quality of the world's aquatic resources
The results of the GIWA assessment in each region are reported in
and the recognition of governments and the international community
regional reports that are published by UNEP. These reports are designed
concerning the absence of a globally coherent international waters
to provide a brief physical and socio-economic description of the
assessment. However, because a holistic, region-by-region, assessment
most important features of the region against which the results of the
of the condition of the world's transboundary water resources had never
assessment can be cast. The remaining sections of the report present
been undertaken, a methodology guiding the implementation of such
the results of each stage of the assessment in an easily digestible form.
Each regional report is reviewed by at least two independent external
UNEP Water Policy and Strategy
reviewers in order to ensure the scientifi c validity and applicability of
The primary goals of the UNEP water policy and strategy are:
each report. The 66 regional assessments of the GIWA will serve UNEP
(a) Achieving greater global understanding of freshwater, coastal and marine environments by
as an essential complement to the UNEP Water Policy and Strategy and
conducting environmental assessments in priority areas;
(b) Raising awareness of the importance and consequences of unsustainable water use;
UNEP's activities in the hydrosphere.
(c) Supporting the efforts of Governments in the preparation and implementation of integrated
management of freshwater systems and their related coastal and marine environments;
(d) Providing support for the preparation of integrated management plans and programmes for
aquatic environmental hot spots, based on the assessment results;
Global International Waters Assessment
(e) Promoting the application by stakeholders of precautionary, preventive and anticipatory
approaches.
GLOBAL INTERNATIONAL WATERS ASSESSMENT
v
References:
AMAP (1998). Assessment Report: Arctic Pollution Issues. Arctic
Monitoring and Assessment Programme (AMAP), Oslo, Norway.
Barannik, V., Borysova, O. and Stolberg, F. (2004). The Caspian Sea Region:
Environmental Change. Ambio, 33:45-51.
Brinson, M.M. and Malvárez, A.I. (2002). Temperate freshwater wetlands:
types, status, and threats. Environmental Conservation, 29:115-133.
Daoji, L. and Daler, D. (2004). Ocean Pollution from Land-based Sources:
East China Sea, China. Ambio, 33:98-106.
FAO (2001). Reykjavik conference on responsible fi sheries in the marine
ecosystem. Iceland, 1-4 October 2001.
IOC (2002). IOC-IUCN-NOAA Consultative Meeting on Large Marine
Ecosystems (LMEs). Fourth Session, 8-9 January 2002, Paris,
France.
IPCC (2001). Climate Change 2001: The Scientifi c Basis. Contribution
of Working Group I to the Third Assessment Report of the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. In: Houghton,
J.T., Ding, Y., Griggs, D.J., Noguer, M., van der Linden, P.J., Dai, X.,
Maskell, K. and Johnson, C.A. (eds). Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA.
Kennish, M.J. (2002). Environmental threats and environmental future of
estuaries. Environmental Conservation, 29:78-107.
Myers, R.A. and Worm, B. (2003). Rapid worldwide depletion of predatory
fi sh communities. Nature, 423:280-283.
Primavera, J.H. (1997) Socio-economic impacts of shrimp culture.
Aquaculture Research, 28:815-827.
Sherman, K. (1994). Sustainability, biomass yields, and health of coastal
ecosystems: an ecological perspective. Marine Ecology Progress
Series, 112:277-301.
United Nations conference on the human environment (1972). Report
available on-line at http://www.unep.org
United Nations Millennium Declaration (2000). The Millennium
Assembly of the United Nations, New York.
WHO-UNICEF (2002). Global Water Supply and Sanitation Assessment:
2000 Report.
WSSD (2002). World Summit on Sustainable Development.
Johannesburg Summit 2002. Key Outcomes of the Summit,
UN Department of Public Information, New York.
vi
REGIONAL ASSESSMENTS
The GIWA methodology
The specifi c objectives of the GIWA were to conduct a holistic and globally
The assessment integrates environmental and socio-economic data
comparable assessment of the world's transboundary aquatic resources
from each country in the region to determine the severity of the
that incorporated both environmental and socio-economic factors
impacts of each of the fi ve concerns and their constituent issues on
and recognised the inextricable links between freshwater and marine
the entire region. The integration of this information was facilitated by
environments, in order to enable the GEF to focus their resources and to
implementing the assessment during two participatory workshops
provide guidance and advice to governments and decision makers. The
that typically involved 10 to 15 environmental and socio-economic
coalition of all these elements into a single coherent methodology that
experts from each country in the region. During these workshops, the
produces an assessment that achieves each of these objectives had not
regional teams performed preliminary analyses based on the collective
previously been done and posed a signifi cant challenge.
knowledge and experience of these local experts. The results of these
analyses were substantiated with the best available information to be
The integration of each of these elements into the GIWA methodology
presented in a regional report.
was achieved through an iterative process guided by a specially
Table 1 Pre-defi ned GIWA concerns and their constituent issues
convened Methods task team that was comprised of a number of
addressed within the assessment.
international assessment and water experts. Before the fi nal version
of the methodology was adopted, preliminary versions underwent
Environmental issues
Major concerns
an extensive external peer review and were subjected to preliminary
1. Modification of stream flow
testing in selected regions. Advice obtained from the Methods task
2. Pollution of existing supplies
I Freshwater shortage
3. Changes in the water table
team and other international experts and the lessons learnt from
preliminary testing were incorporated into the fi nal version that was
4. Microbiological
5. Eutrophication
used to conduct each of the GIWA regional assessments.
6. Chemical
7. Suspended
solids
II Pollution
8. Solid wastes
Considering the enormous diff erences between regions in terms of the
9. Thermal
10. Radionuclide
quality, quantity and availability of data, socio-economic setting and
11. Spills
environmental conditions, the achievement of global comparability
12. Loss of ecosystems
required an innovative approach. This was facilitated by focusing
III Habitat and community
13. Modification of ecosystems or ecotones, including community
modification
structure and/or species composition
the assessment on the impacts of fi ve pre-defi ned concerns namely;
Freshwater shortage, Pollution, Habitat and community modifi cation,
14. Overexploitation
15. Excessive by-catch and discards
IV Unsustainable
Unsustainable exploitation of fi sh and other living resources and Global
16. Destructive fishing practices
exploitation of fish and
change, in transboundary waters. Considering the diverse range of
17. Decreased viability of stock through pollution and disease
other living resources
18. Impact on biological and genetic diversity
elements encompassed by each concern, assessing the magnitude of
the impacts caused by these concerns was facilitated by evaluating the
19. Changes in hydrological cycle
20. Sea level change
V Global change
impacts of 22 specifi c issues that were grouped within these concerns
21. Increased uv-b radiation as a result of ozone depletion
22. Changes in ocean CO2 source/sink function
(see Table 1).
THE GIWA METHODOLOGY
vii
political boundaries but were instead, generally defi ned by a large but
T
r
ansboundar
The GIWA approach
discrete drainage basin that also included the coastal marine waters into
which the basin discharges. In many cases, the marine areas examined
1
Scaling
st
W
orkshop
Detailed
during the assessment coincided with the Large Marine Ecosystems
y
D
(LMEs) defi ned by the US National Atmospheric and Oceanographic
iagnostic
A
ssessment
Scoping
Administration (NOAA). As a consequence, scaling should be a
relatively straight-forward task that involves the inspection of the
Analy
boundaries that were proposed for the region during the preparatory
Causal Chain
2 nd
Analysis
sis
phase of GIWA to ensure that they are appropriate and that there are
W
orkshop
no important overlaps or gaps with neighbouring regions. When the
Policy Option
proposed boundaries were found to be inadequate, the boundaries of
Analysis
the region were revised according to the recommendations of experts
from both within the region and from adjacent regions so as to ensure
that any changes did not result in the exclusion of areas from the GIWA.
Once the regional boundary was defi ned, regional teams identifi ed all
SAP
the transboundary elements of the aquatic environment within the
SAP
region and determined if these elements could be assessed as a single
Figure 1
Illustration of the relationship between the GIWA
coherent aquatic system or if there were two or more independent
approach and other projects implemented within the
systems that should be assessed separately.
GEF International Waters (IW) portfolio.
The GIWA is a logical contiguous process that defi nes the geographic
Scoping Assessing the GIWA concerns
region to be assessed, identifi es and prioritises particularly problems
Scoping is an assessment of the severity of environmental and socio-
based on the magnitude of their impacts on the environment and
economic impacts caused by each of the fi ve pre-defi ned GIWA concerns
human societies in the region, determines the root causes of those
and their constituent issues (Table 1). It is not designed to provide an
problems and, fi nally, assesses various policy options that addresses
exhaustive review of water-related problems that exist within each region,
those root causes in order to reverse negative trends in the condition
but rather it is a mechanism to identify the most urgent problems in the
of the aquatic environment. These four steps, referred to as Scaling,
region and prioritise those for remedial actions. The priorities determined
Scoping, Causal chain analysis and Policy options analysis, are
by Scoping are therefore one of the main outputs of the GIWA project.
summarised below and are described in their entirety in two volumes:
GIWA Methodology Stage 1: Scaling and Scoping; and GIWA Methodology:
Focusing the assessment on pre-defi ned concerns and issues ensured
Detailed Assessment, Causal Chain Analysis and Policy Options Analysis.
the comparability of the results between diff erent regions. In addition, to
Generally, the components of the GIWA methodology are aligned
ensure the long-term applicability of the options that are developed to
with the framework adopted by the GEF for Transboundary Diagnostic
mitigate these problems, Scoping not only assesses the current impacts
Analyses (TDAs) and Strategic Action Programmes (SAPs) (Figure 1) and
of these concerns and issues but also the probable future impacts
assume a broad spectrum of transboundary infl uences in addition to
according to the "most likely scenario" which considered demographic,
those associated with the physical movement of water across national
economic, technological and other relevant changes that will potentially
borders.
infl uence the aquatic environment within the region by 2020.
Scaling Defining the geographic extent
The magnitude of the impacts caused by each issue on the
of the region
environment and socio-economic indicators was assessed over the
Scaling is the fi rst stage of the assessment and is the process by which
entire region using the best available information from a wide range of
the geographic scale of the assessment is defi ned. In order to facilitate
sources and the knowledge and experience of the each of the experts
the implementation of the GIWA, the globe was divided during the
comprising the regional team. In order to enhance the comparability
design phase of the project into 66 contiguous regions. Considering the
of the assessment between diff erent regions and remove biases
transboundary nature of many aquatic resources and the transboundary
in the assessment caused by diff erent perceptions of and ways to
focus of the GIWA, the boundaries of the regions did not comply with
communicate the severity of impacts caused by particular issues, the
viii
REGIONAL ASSESSMENTS
results were distilled and reported as standardised scores according to
Table 2
Example of environmental impact assessment of
Freshwater shortage.
the following four point scale:
Weight
0 = no known impact
Environmental
Environmental issues
Score
Weight %
averaged
concerns
1 = slight impact
score
2 = moderate impact
1. Modification of stream flow
1
20
Freshwater shortage
1.50
3 = severe impact
2. Pollution of existing supplies
2
50
The attributes of each score for each issue were described by a detailed
3. Changes in the water table
1
30
set of pre-defi ned criteria that were used to guide experts in reporting
Table 3
Example of Health impacts assessment linked to one of
the results of the assessment. For example, the criterion for assigning
the GIWA concerns.
a score of 3 to the issue Loss of ecosystems or ecotones is: "Permanent
Criteria for Health impacts
Raw score
Score
Weight %
destruction of at least one habitat is occurring such as to have reduced their
Very small
Very large
surface area by >30% during the last 2-3 decades". The full list of criteria is
Number of people affected
2
50
0 1 2 3
presented at the end of the chapter, Table 5a-e. Although the scoring
Minimum
Severe
Degree of severity
2
30
0 1 2 3
inevitably includes an arbitrary component, the use of predefi ned
Occasion/Short
Continuous
Frequency/Duration
2
20
0 1 2 3
criteria facilitates comparison of impacts on a global scale and also
Weight average score for Health impacts
2
encouraged consensus of opinion among experts.
The trade-off associated with assessing the impacts of each concern
After all 22 issues and associated socio-economic impacts have
and their constituent issues at the scale of the entire region is that spatial
been scored, weighted and averaged, the magnitude of likely future
resolution was sometimes low. Although the assessment provides a
changes in the environmental and socio-economic impacts of each
score indicating the severity of impacts of a particular issue or concern
of the fi ve concerns on the entire region is assessed according to the
on the entire region, it does not mean that the entire region suff ers
most likely scenario which describes the demographic, economic,
the impacts of that problem. For example, eutrophication could be
technological and other relevant changes that might infl uence the
identifi ed as a severe problem in a region, but this does not imply that all
aquatic environment within the region by 2020.
waters in the region suff er from severe eutrophication. It simply means
that when the degree of eutrophication, the size of the area aff ected,
In order to prioritise among GIWA concerns within the region and
the socio-economic impacts and the number of people aff ected is
identify those that will be subjected to causal chain and policy options
considered, the magnitude of the overall impacts meets the criteria
analysis in the subsequent stages of the GIWA, the present and future
defi ning a severe problem and that a regional action should be initiated
scores of the environmental and socio-economic impacts of each
in order to mitigate the impacts of the problem.
concern are tabulated and an overall score calculated. In the example
presented in Table 4, the scoping assessment indicated that concern III,
When each issue has been scored, it was weighted according to the relative
Habitat and community modifi cation, was the priority concern in this
contribution it made to the overall environmental impacts of the concern
region. The outcome of this mathematic process was reconciled against
and a weighted average score for each of the fi ve concerns was calculated
the knowledge of experts and the best available information in order
(Table 2). Of course, if each issue was deemed to make equal contributions,
to ensure the validity of the conclusion.
then the score describing the overall impacts of the concern was simply the
arithmetic mean of the scores allocated to each issue within the concern.
In some cases however, this process and the subsequent participatory
In addition, the socio-economic impacts of each of the fi ve major
discussion did not yield consensus among the regional experts
concerns were assessed for the entire region. The socio-economic
regarding the ranking of priorities. As a consequence, further analysis
impacts were grouped into three categories; Economic impacts,
was required. In such cases, expert teams continued by assessing the
Health impacts and Other social and community impacts (Table 3). For
relative importance of present and potential future impacts and assign
each category, an evaluation of the size, degree and frequency of the
weights to each. Afterwards, the teams assign weights indicating the
impact was performed and, once completed, a weighted average score
relative contribution made by environmental and socio-economic
describing the overall socio-economic impacts of each concern was
factors to the overall impacts of the concern. The weighted average
calculated in the same manner as the overall environmental score.
score for each concern is then recalculated taking into account
THE GIWA METHODOLOGY
ix
Table 4
Example of comparative environmental and socio-economic impacts of each major concern, presently and likely in year 2020.
Types of impacts
Environmental score
Economic score
Human health score
Social and community score
Concern
Overall score
Present (a)
Future (b)
Present (c)
Future (d)
Present (e)
Future (f)
Present (g)
Future (h)
Freshwater shortage
1.3
2.3
2.7
2.8
2.6
3.0
1.8
2.2
2.3
Pollution
1.5
2.0
2.0
2.3
1.8
2.3
2.0
2.3
2.0
Habitat and community
2.0
3.0
2.4
3.0
2.4
2.8
2.3
2.7
2.6
modification
Unsustainable exploitation of fish
1.8
2.2
2.0
2.1
2.0
2.1
2.4
2.5
2.1
and other living resources
Global change
0.8
1.0
1.5
1.7
1.5
1.5
1.0
1.0
1.2
the relative contributions of both present and future impacts and
should be regarded as a framework to guide the analysis, rather than
environmental and socio-economic factors. The outcome of these
as a set of detailed instructions. Secondly, in an ideal setting, a causal
additional analyses was subjected to further discussion to identify
chain would be produced by a multidisciplinary group of specialists
overall priorities for the region.
that would statistically examine each successive cause and study its
links to the problem and to other causes. However, this approach (even
Finally, the assessment recognises that each of the fi ve GIWA concerns
if feasible) would use far more resources and time than those available
are not discrete but often interact. For example, pollution can destroy
to GIWA1. For this reason, it has been necessary to develop a relatively
aquatic habitats that are essential for fi sh reproduction which, in turn,
simple and practical analytical model for gathering information to
can cause declines in fi sh stocks and subsequent overexploitation. Once
assemble meaningful causal chains.
teams have ranked each of the concerns and determined the priorities
for the region, the links between the concerns are highlighted in order
Conceptual model
to identify places where strategic interventions could be applied to
A causal chain is a series of statements that link the causes of a problem
yield the greatest benefi ts for the environment and human societies
with its eff ects. Recognising the great diversity of local settings and the
in the region.
resulting diffi
culty in developing broadly applicable policy strategies,
the GIWA CCA focuses on a particular system and then only on those
Causal chain analysis
issues that were prioritised during the scoping assessment. The
Causal Chain Analysis (CCA) traces the cause-eff ect pathways from the
starting point of a particular causal chain is one of the issues selected
socio-economic and environmental impacts back to their root causes.
during the Scaling and Scoping stages and its related environmental
The GIWA CCA aims to identify the most important causes of each
and socio-economic impacts. The next element in the GIWA chain is
concern prioritised during the scoping assessment in order to direct
the immediate cause; defi ned as the physical, biological or chemical
policy measures at the most appropriate target in order to prevent
variable that produces the GIWA issue. For example, for the issue of
further degradation of the regional aquatic environment.
eutrophication the immediate causes may be, inter alia:
Enhanced nutrient inputs;
Root causes are not always easy to identify because they are often
Increased
recycling/mobilisation;
spatially or temporally separated from the actual problems they
Trapping of nutrients (e.g. in river impoundments);
cause. The GIWA CCA was developed to help identify and understand
Run-off and stormwaters
the root causes of environmental and socio-economic problems
in international waters and is conducted by identifying the human
Once the relevant immediate cause(s) for the particular system has
activities that cause the problem and then the factors that determine
(have) been identifi ed, the sectors of human activity that contribute
the ways in which these activities are undertaken. However, because
most signifi cantly to the immediate cause have to be determined.
there is no universal theory describing how root causes interact to
Assuming that the most important immediate cause in our example
create natural resource management problems and due to the great
had been increased nutrient concentrations, then it is logical that the
variation of local circumstances under which the methodology will
most likely sources of those nutrients would be the agricultural, urban
be applied, the GIWA CCA is not a rigidly structured assessment but
or industrial sectors. After identifying the sectors that are primarily
1 This does not mean that the methodology ignores statistical or quantitative studies; as has already been pointed out, the available evidence that justifies the assumption of causal links should
be provided in the assessment.
x
REGIONAL ASSESSMENTS
responsible for the immediate causes, the root causes acting on those
The policy options recommended by the GIWA are only contributions
sectors must be determined. For example, if agriculture was found to
to the larger policy process and, as such, the GIWA methodology
be primarily responsible for the increased nutrient concentrations, the
developed to test the performance of various options under the
root causes could potentially be:
diff erent circumstances has been kept simple and broadly applicable.
Economic (e.g. subsidies to fertilisers and agricultural products);
Legal (e.g. inadequate regulation);
Global International Waters Assessment
Failures in governance (e.g. poor enforcement); or
Technology or knowledge related (e.g. lack of aff ordable substitutes
for fertilisers or lack of knowledge as to their application).
Once the most relevant root causes have been identifi ed, an
explanation, which includes available data and information, of how
they are responsible for the primary environmental and socio-economic
problems in the region should be provided.
Policy option analysis
Despite considerable eff ort of many Governments and other
organisations to address transboundary water problems, the evidence
indicates that there is still much to be done in this endeavour. An
important characteristic of GIWA's Policy Option Analysis (POA) is that
its recommendations are fi rmly based on a better understanding of
the root causes of the problems. Freshwater scarcity, water pollution,
overexploitation of living resources and habitat destruction are very
complex phenomena. Policy options that are grounded on a better
understanding of these phenomena will contribute to create more
eff ective societal responses to the extremely complex water related
transboundary problems. The core of POA in the assessment consists
of two tasks:
Construct policy options
Policy options are simply diff erent courses of action, which are not
always mutually exclusive, to solve or mitigate environmental and
socio-economic problems in the region. Although a multitude of
diff erent policy options could be constructed to address each root
cause identifi ed in the CCA, only those few policy options that have
the greatest likelihood of success were analysed in the GIWA.
Select and apply the criteria on which the policy options will be
evaluated
Although there are many criteria that could be used to evaluate any
policy option, GIWA focuses on:
Eff ectiveness (certainty of result)
Effi
ciency (maximisation of net benefi ts)
Equity (fairness of distributional impacts)
Practical criteria (political acceptability, implementation feasibility).
THE GIWA METHODOLOGY
xi
Table 5a: Scoring criteria for environmental impacts of Freshwater shortage
Issue
Score 0 = no known impact
Score 1 = slight impact
Score 2 = moderate impact
Score 3 = severe impact
Issue 1: Modification
No evidence of modification of stream
There is a measurably changing trend in
Significant downward or upward trend
Annual discharge of a river altered by more
of stream flow
flow.
annual river discharge at gauging stations
(more than 20% of the long term mean) in
than 50% of long term mean; or
"An increase or decrease
in a major river or tributary (basin >
annual discharges in a major river or tributary Loss of >50% of riparian or deltaic
in the discharge of
40 000 km2); or
draining a basin of >250 000 km2; or
wetlands over a period of not less than
streams and rivers
There is a measurable decrease in the area
Loss of >20% of flood plain or deltaic
40 years (through causes other than
as a result of human
of wetlands (other than as a consequence
wetlands through causes other than
conversion or artificial embankment); or
interventions on a local/
of conversion or embankment
conversion or artificial embankments; or
Significant increased siltation or erosion
regional scale (see Issue
construction); or
Significant loss of riparian vegetation (e.g.
due to changing in flow regime (other than
19 for flow alterations
There is a measurable change in the
trees, flood plain vegetation); or
normal fluctuations in flood plain rivers);
resulting from global
interannual mean salinity of estuaries or
Significant saline intrusion into previously
or
change) over the last 3-4
coastal lagoons and/or change in the mean
freshwater rivers or lagoons.
Loss of one or more anadromous or
decades."
position of estuarine salt wedge or mixing
catadromous fish species for reasons
zone; or
other than physical barriers to migration,
Change in the occurrence of exceptional
pollution or overfishing.
discharges (e.g. due to upstream
damming.
Issue 2: Pollution of
No evidence of pollution of surface and
Any monitored water in the region does
Water supplies does not meet WHO or
River draining more than 10% of the basin
existing supplies
ground waters.
not meet WHO or national drinking water
national drinking water standards in more
have suffered polysaprobic conditions, no
"Pollution of surface
criteria, other than for natural reasons; or
than 30% of the region; or
longer support fish, or have suffered severe
and ground fresh waters
There have been reports of one or more
There are one or more reports of fish kills
oxygen depletion
supplies as a result of
fish kills in the system due to pollution
due to pollution in any river draining a
Severe pollution of other sources of
point or diffuse sources"
within the past five years.
basin of >250 000 km2 .
freshwater (e.g. groundwater)
Issue 3: Changes in the No evidence that abstraction of water from Several wells have been deepened because Clear evidence of declining base flow in
Aquifers are suffering salinisation over
water table
aquifers exceeds natural replenishment.
of excessive aquifer draw-down; or
rivers in semi-arid areas; or
regional scale; or
"Changes in aquifers
Several springs have dried up; or
Loss of plant species in the past decade,
Perennial springs have dried up over
as a direct or indirect
Several wells show some salinisation.
that depend on the presence of ground
regionally significant areas; or
consequence of human
water; or
Some aquifers have become exhausted
activity"
Wells have been deepened over areas of
hundreds of km2;or
Salinisation over significant areas of the
region.
Table 5b: Scoring criteria for environmental impacts of Pollution
Issue
Score 0 = no known impact
Score 1 = slight impact
Score 2 = moderate impact
Score 3 = severe impact
Issue 4:
Normal incidence of bacterial related
There is minor increase in incidence of
Public health authorities aware of marked
There are large closure areas or very
Microbiological
gastroenteric disorders in fisheries product
bacterial related gastroenteric disorders
increase in the incidence of bacterial
restrictive advisories affecting the
pollution
consumers and no fisheries closures or
in fisheries product consumers but no
related gastroenteric disorders in fisheries
marketability of fisheries products; or
"The adverse effects of
advisories.
fisheries closures or advisories.
product consumers; or
There exists widespread public or tourist
microbial constituents of
There are limited area closures or
awareness of hazards resulting in
human sewage released
advisories reducing the exploitation or
major reductions in the exploitation or
to water bodies."
marketability of fisheries products.
marketability of fisheries products.
Issue 5:
No visible effects on the abundance and
Increased abundance of epiphytic algae; or
Increased filamentous algal production
High frequency (>1 event per year), or
Eutrophication
distributions of natural living resource
A statistically significant trend in
resulting in algal mats; or
intensity, or large areas of periodic hypoxic
"Artificially enhanced
distributions in the area; and
decreased water transparency associated
Medium frequency (up to once per year)
conditions, or high frequencies of fish and
primary productivity in
No increased frequency of hypoxia1 or
with algal production as compared with
of large-scale hypoxia and/or fish and
zoobenthos mortality events or harmful
receiving water basins
fish mortality events or harmful algal
long-term (>20 year) data sets; or
zoobenthos mortality events and/or
algal blooms; or
related to the increased
blooms associated with enhanced primary
Measurable shallowing of the depth range
harmful algal blooms.
Significant changes in the littoral
availability or supply
production; and
of macrophytes.
community; or
of nutrients, including
No evidence of periodically reduced
Presence of hydrogen sulphide in
cultural eutrophication
dissolved oxygen or fish and zoobenthos
historically well oxygenated areas.
in lakes."
mortality; and
No evident abnormality in the frequency of
algal blooms.
xii
REGIONAL ASSESSMENTS
Issue 6: Chemical
No known or historical levels of chemical
Some chemical contaminants are
Some chemical contaminants are above
Chemical contaminants are above
pollution
contaminants except background levels of
detectable but below threshold limits
threshold limits defined for the country or
threshold limits defined for the country or
"The adverse effects of
naturally occurring substances; and
defined for the country or region; or
region; or
region; and
chemical contaminants
No fisheries closures or advisories due to
Restricted area advisories regarding
Large area advisories by public health
Public health and public awareness of
released to standing or
chemical pollution; and
chemical contamination of fisheries
authorities concerning fisheries product
fisheries contamination problems with
marine water bodies
No incidence of fisheries product tainting;
products.
contamination but without associated
associated reductions in the marketability
as a result of human
and
catch restrictions or closures; or
of such products either through the
activities. Chemical
No unusual fish mortality events.
If there is no available data use the following
High mortalities of aquatic species near
imposition of limited advisories or by area
contaminants are
criteria:
outfalls.
closures of fisheries; or
here defined as
If there is no available data use the following
Some use of pesticides in small areas; or
Large-scale mortalities of aquatic species.
compounds that are
criteria:
Presence of small sources of dioxins or
If there is no available data use the following
toxic or persistent or
No use of pesticides; and
furans (e.g., small incineration plants or
criteria:
If there is no available data use the following
bioaccumulating."
No sources of dioxins and furans; and
bleached kraft/pulp mills using chlorine);
Large-scale use of pesticides in agriculture
criteria:
No regional use of PCBs; and
or
and forestry; or
Indications of health effects resulting
No bleached kraft pulp mills using chlorine Some previous and existing use of PCBs
Presence of major sources of dioxins or
from use of pesticides; or
bleaching; and
and limited amounts of PCB-containing
furans such as large municipal or industrial Known emissions of dioxins or furans from
No use or sources of other contaminants.
wastes but not in amounts invoking local
incinerators or large bleached kraft pulp
incinerators or chlorine bleaching of pulp;
concerns; or
mills; or
or
Presence of other contaminants.
Considerable quantities of waste PCBs in
Known contamination of the environment
the area with inadequate regulation or has
or foodstuffs by PCBs; or
invoked some public concerns; or
Known contamination of the environment
Presence of considerable quantities of
or foodstuffs by other contaminants.
other contaminants.
Issue 7: Suspended
No visible reduction in water transparency; Evidently increased or reduced turbidity
Markedly increased or reduced turbidity
Major changes in turbidity over wide or
solids
and
in streams and/or receiving riverine and
in small areas of streams and/or receiving
ecologically significant areas resulting
"The adverse effects of
No evidence of turbidity plumes or
marine environments but without major
riverine and marine environments; or
in markedly changed biodiversity or
modified rates of release
increased siltation; and
changes in associated sedimentation or
Extensive evidence of changes in
mortality in benthic species due to
of suspended particulate No evidence of progressive riverbank,
erosion rates, mortality or diversity of flora
sedimentation or erosion rates; or
excessive sedimentation with or without
matter to water bodies
beach, other coastal or deltaic erosion.
and fauna; or
Changes in benthic or pelagic biodiversity
concomitant changes in the nature of
resulting from human
Some evidence of changes in benthic or
in areas due to sediment blanketing or
deposited sediments (i.e., grain-size
activities"
pelagic biodiversity in some areas due
increased turbidity.
composition/redox); or
to sediment blanketing or increased
Major change in pelagic biodiversity or
turbidity.
mortality due to excessive turbidity.
Issue 8: Solid wastes
No noticeable interference with trawling
Some evidence of marine-derived litter on
Widespread litter on beaches giving rise to Incidence of litter on beaches sufficient
"Adverse effects
activities; and
beaches; or
public concerns regarding the recreational
to deter the public from recreational
associated with the
No noticeable interference with the
Occasional recovery of solid wastes
use of beaches; or
activities; or
introduction of solid
recreational use of beaches due to litter;
through trawling activities; but
High frequencies of benthic litter recovery
Trawling activities untenable because of
waste materials into
and
Without noticeable interference with
and interference with trawling activities;
benthic litter and gear entanglement; or
water bodies or their
No reported entanglement of aquatic
trawling and recreational activities in
or
Widespread entanglement and/or
environs."
organisms with debris.
coastal areas.
Frequent reports of entanglement/
suffocation of aquatic species by litter.
suffocation of species by litter.
Issue 9: Thermal
No thermal discharges or evidence of
Presence of thermal discharges but
Presence of thermal discharges with large
Presence of thermal discharges with large
"The adverse effects
thermal effluent effects.
without noticeable effects beyond
mixing zones having reduced productivity
mixing zones with associated mortalities,
of the release of
the mixing zone and no significant
or altered biodiversity; or
substantially reduced productivity or
aqueous effluents at
interference with migration of species.
Evidence of reduced migration of species
noticeable changes in biodiversity; or
temperatures exceeding
due to thermal plume.
Marked reduction in the migration of
ambient temperature
species due to thermal plumes.
in the receiving water
body."
Issue 10: Radionuclide No radionuclide discharges or nuclear
Minor releases or fallout of radionuclides
Minor releases or fallout of radionuclides
Substantial releases or fallout of
"The adverse effects of
activities in the region.
but with well regulated or well-managed
under poorly regulated conditions that do
radionuclides resulting in excessive
the release of radioactive
conditions complying with the Basic Safety
not provide an adequate basis for public
exposures to humans or animals in relation
contaminants and
Standards.
health assurance or the protection of
to those recommended under the Basic
wastes into the aquatic
aquatic organisms but without situations
Safety Standards; or
environment from
or levels likely to warrant large scale
Some indication of situations or exposures
human activities."
intervention by a national or international
warranting intervention by a national or
authority.
international authority.
Issue 11: Spills
No evidence of present or previous spills of
Some evidence of minor spills of hazardous Evidence of widespread contamination
Widespread contamination by hazardous
"The adverse effects
hazardous material; or
materials in small areas with insignificant
by hazardous or aesthetically displeasing
or aesthetically displeasing materials
of accidental episodic
No evidence of increased aquatic or avian
small-scale adverse effects one aquatic or
materials assumed to be from spillage
from frequent spills resulting in major
releases of contaminants
species mortality due to spills.
avian species.
(e.g. oil slicks) but with limited evidence of
interference with aquatic resource
and materials to the
widespread adverse effects on resources or
exploitation or coastal recreational
aquatic environment
amenities; or
amenities; or
as a result of human
Some evidence of aquatic or avian species
Significant mortality of aquatic or avian
activities."
mortality through increased presence of
species as evidenced by large numbers of
contaminated or poisoned carcasses on
contaminated carcasses on beaches.
beaches.
THE GIWA METHODOLOGY
xiii
Table 5c: Scoring criteria for environmental impacts of Habitat and community modification
Issue
Score 0 = no known impact
Score 1 = slight impact
Score 2 = moderate impact
Score 3 = severe impact
Issue 12: Loss of ecosystems or
There is no evidence of loss of
There are indications of fragmentation Permanent destruction of at least one
Permanent destruction of at least one
ecotones
ecosystems or habitats.
of at least one of the habitats.
habitat is occurring such as to have
habitat is occurring such as to have
"The complete destruction of aquatic
reduced their surface area by up to 30
reduced their surface area by >30%
habitats. For the purpose of GIWA
% during the last 2-3 decades.
during the last 2-3 decades.
methodology, recent loss will be
measured as a loss of pre-defined
habitats over the last 2-3 decades."
Issue 13: Modification of
No evidence of change in species
Evidence of change in species
Evidence of change in species
Evidence of change in species
ecosystems or ecotones, including
complement due to species extinction
complement due to species extinction
complement due to species extinction
complement due to species extinction
community structure and/or species
or introduction; and
or introduction
or introduction; and
or introduction; and
composition
No changing in ecosystem function
Evidence of change in population
Evidence of change in population
"Modification of pre-defined habitats
and services.
structure or change in functional group
structure or change in functional group
in terms of extinction of native species,
composition or structure
composition or structure; and
occurrence of introduced species and
Evidence of change in ecosystem
changing in ecosystem function and
services2.
services over the last 2-3 decades."
2 Constanza, R. et al. (1997). The value of the world ecosystem services and natural capital, Nature 387:253-260.
Table 5d: Scoring criteria for environmental impacts of Unsustainable exploitation of fish and other
living resources
Issue
Score 0 = no known impact
Score 1 = slight impact
Score 2 = moderate impact
Score 3 = severe impact
Issue 14: Overexploitation
No harvesting exists catching fish
Commercial harvesting exists but there One stock is exploited beyond MSY
More than one stock is exploited
"The capture of fish, shellfish or marine
(with commercial gear for sale or
is no evidence of over-exploitation.
(maximum sustainable yield) or is
beyond MSY or is outside safe
invertebrates at a level that exceeds the
subsistence).
outside safe biological limits.
biological limits.
maximum sustainable yield of the stock."
Issue 15: Excessive by-catch and
Current harvesting practices show no
Up to 30% of the fisheries yield (by
30-60% of the fisheries yield consists
Over 60% of the fisheries yield is
discards
evidence of excessive by-catch and/or
weight) consists of by-catch and/or
of by-catch and/or discards.
by-catch and/or discards; or
"By-catch refers to the incidental capture
discards.
discards.
Noticeable incidence of capture of
of fish or other animals that are not the
endangered species.
target of the fisheries. Discards refers
to dead fish or other animals that are
returned to the sea."
Issue 16: Destructive fishing
No evidence of habitat destruction due Habitat destruction resulting in
Habitat destruction resulting in
Habitat destruction resulting in
practices
to fisheries practices.
changes in distribution of fish or
moderate reduction of stocks or
complete collapse of a stock or far
"Fishing practices that are deemed to
shellfish stocks; or
moderate changes of the environment;
reaching changes in the environment;
produce significant harm to marine,
Trawling of any one area of the seabed
or
or
lacustrine or coastal habitats and
is occurring less than once per year.
Trawling of any one area of the seabed
Trawling of any one area of the seabed
communities."
is occurring 1-10 times per year; or
is occurring more than 10 times per
Incidental use of explosives or poisons
year; or
for fishing.
Widespread use of explosives or
poisons for fishing.
Issue 17: Decreased viability of
No evidence of increased incidence of
Increased reports of diseases without
Declining populations of one or more
Collapse of stocks as a result of
stocks through contamination and
fish or shellfish diseases.
major impacts on the stock.
species as a result of diseases or
diseases or contamination.
disease
contamination.
"Contamination or diseases of feral (wild)
stocks of fish or invertebrates that are a
direct or indirect consequence of human
action."
Issue 18: Impact on biological and
No evidence of deliberate or accidental Alien species introduced intentionally
Measurable decline in the population
Extinction of native species or local
genetic diversity
introductions of alien species; and
or accidentally without major changes
of native species or local stocks as a
stocks as a result of introductions
"Changes in genetic and species diversity No evidence of deliberate or accidental
in the community structure; or
result of introductions (intentional or
(intentional or accidental); or
of aquatic environments resulting from
introductions of alien stocks; and
Alien stocks introduced intentionally
accidental); or
Major changes (>20%) in the genetic
the introduction of alien or genetically
No evidence of deliberate or accidental
or accidentally without major changes Some changes in the genetic
composition of stocks (e.g. as a result
modified species as an intentional or
introductions of genetically modified
in the community structure; or
composition of stocks (e.g. as a result
of escapes from aquaculture replacing
unintentional result of human activities
species.
Genetically modified species
of escapes from aquaculture replacing
the wild stock).
including aquaculture and restocking."
introduced intentionally or
the wild stock).
accidentally without major changes in
the community structure.
xiv
REGIONAL ASSESSMENTS
Table 5e: Scoring criteria for environmental impacts of Global change
Issue
Score 0 = no known impact
Score 1 = slight impact
Score 2 = moderate impact
Score 3 = severe impact
Issue 19: Changes in hydrological
No evidence of changes in hydrological Change in hydrological cycles due
Significant trend in changing
Loss of an entire habitat through
cycle and ocean circulation
cycle and ocean/coastal current due to
to global change causing changes
terrestrial or sea ice cover (by
desiccation or submergence as a result
"Changes in the local/regional water
global change.
in the distribution and density of
comparison with a long-term time
of global change; or
balance and changes in ocean and coastal
riparian terrestrial or aquatic plants
series) without major downstream
Change in the tree or lichen lines; or
circulation or current regime over the
without influencing overall levels of
effects on river/ocean circulation or
Major impacts on habitats or
last 2-3 decades arising from the wider
productivity; or
biological diversity; or
biodiversity as the result of increasing
problem of global change including
Some evidence of changes in ocean
Extreme events such as flood and
frequency of extreme events; or
ENSO."
or coastal currents due to global
drought are increasing; or
Changing in ocean or coastal currents
change but without a strong effect on
Aquatic productivity has been altered
or upwelling regimes such that plant
ecosystem diversity or productivity.
as a result of global phenomena such
or animal populations are unable to
as ENSO events.
recover to their historical or stable
levels; or
Significant changes in thermohaline
circulation.
Issue 20: Sea level change
No evidence of sea level change.
Some evidences of sea level change
Changed pattern of coastal erosion due Major loss of coastal land areas due to
"Changes in the last 2-3 decades in the
without major loss of populations of
to sea level rise has became evident; or
sea-level change or sea-level induced
annual/seasonal mean sea level as a
organisms.
Increase in coastal flooding events
erosion; or
result of global change."
partly attributed to sea-level rise
Major loss of coastal or intertidal
or changing prevailing atmospheric
populations due to sea-level change or
forcing such as atmospheric pressure
sea level induced erosion.
or wind field (other than storm
surges).
Issue 21: Increased UV-B radiation as No evidence of increasing effects
Some measurable effects of UV/B
Aquatic community structure is
Measured/assessed effects of UV/B
a result of ozone depletion
of UV/B radiation on marine or
radiation on behavior or appearance of
measurably altered as a consequence
irradiation are leading to massive loss
"Increased UV-B flux as a result polar
freshwater organisms.
some aquatic species without affecting
of UV/B radiation; or
of aquatic communities or a significant
ozone depletion over the last 2-3
the viability of the population.
One or more aquatic populations are
change in biological diversity.
decades."
declining.
Issue 22: Changes in ocean CO
No measurable or assessed changes
Some reasonable suspicions that
Some evidences that the impacts
Evidences that the changes in
2
source/sink function
in CO source/sink function of aquatic
current global change is impacting the
of global change have altered the
source/sink function of the aquatic
2
"Changes in the capacity of aquatic
system.
aquatic system sufficiently to alter its
source/sink function for CO of aquatic
systems in the region are sufficient to
2
systems, ocean as well as freshwater, to
source/sink function for CO .
systems in the region by at least 10%.
cause measurable change in global CO
2
2
generate or absorb atmospheric CO as a
balance.
2
direct or indirect consequence of global
change over the last 2-3 decades."
THE GIWA METHODOLOGY
xv