Incidental Capture of Seabirds in Pelagic Longline Fisheries of the
Tropical and Subtropical Pacific Islands Region and
Draft Pacific Islands Regional Plan of Action for Reducing the
Incidental Catch of Seabirds in Pelagic Longline Fisheries
September 2006
Prepared for the
Pacific Islands Forum Fisheries Agency
P.O. Box 628
Honiara, SOLOMON ISLANDS
www.ffa.int
by Eric Gilman
Director, Fisheries Bycatch Program, Blue Ocean Institute
University of Tasmania School of Geography and Environmental Studies
E-mail: egilman@blueocean.org
SUMMARY
Available information indicates that seabird interactions with longline vessels operating in tropical
and subtropical areas of the western and central Pacific Ocean (WCPO) are very rare, except in the
Hawaii-based longline fisheries. A large amount of observer data have been collected from tropical
and subtropical Pacific pelagic longline fisheries (15.7 million pelagic longline hooks in 8,786 sets
observed from 1995-2005). However, the observer coverage rate has been extremely low (0.8% of
total effort from 1995-2005). The observer data that have been collected have not been as evenly
distributed amongst flag States, areas and seasons as would be desired, which is critical for
assessing whether or not seabird bycatch is problematic. This is because abundance of seabird
species and seabird species complexes in different areas of the tropical Pacific may exhibit high
inter-annual and seasonal variability. However, available observer data are distributed across
seasons and cover many of the areas within the WCPO, particularly in the EEZs of Forum Fisheries
Agency Members, thus accounting for some of the potential inter-annual variability in seabird actions
that might occur at these fishing grounds. Improvements could be made to observer data collection
protocols to optimize the accuracy in quantifying rare captures events of seabirds and other species
groups of special interest (sea turtles and marine mammals).
In the absence of sufficient direct information on seabird interactions from observer data, indirect
information can be used to attempt to estimate the degree of seabird interactions. This indirect
information has been obtained from (i) fishermen interviews, (ii) comparing the distributions of
seabird species known to be vulnerable to capture in longline fisheries in other regions to the
distribution of longline effort in the tropical and subtropical WCPO, and (iii) identifying tropical and
subtropical Pacific seabird species that may be susceptible to longline capture based on the
characteristics of seabird species that are captured in temperate zone longline fisheries. These
studies have revealed that longline fishermen have very rarely observed seabirds being captured
when longline fishing at grounds in the tropical and subtropical Pacific, and that there are several
species of seabirds present in this region that may be vulnerable to capture in longline fisheries,
several of which are Threatened. However, there is large uncertainty in these results that can only
be resolved through direct observations of the fisheries.
To comply with the Western and Central Pacific Fisheries Commission Resolution 2005-01 on the
Incidental Catch of Seabirds, and the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nation's
International Plan of Action for Reducing the Incidental Catch of Seabirds in Longline Fisheries, FFA
Members (excluding Australia and New Zealand, which have already conducted assessments and
determined that their longline fisheries have problematic seabird interactions and adopted National
Plans of Action, and Tokelau, which currently has no longline activity) are encouraged to conduct
assessments of their longline fisheries to determine if a seabird bycatch problem exists. National
fishery management authorities are encouraged to achieve adequate levels of observer coverage to
detect and reliably estimate levels of incidental seabird capture. This includes adequate spatial and
temporal coverage of fishing effort, as it is likely that seabird interactions will be highly variable
temporally and spatially. It may require several years for assessments to be conducted in individual
fisheries because of the potential of the high temporal and spatial variability in seabird bycatch rates,
and because interactions with any threatened populations of seabirds may be particularly rare
events. Due to the rarity of seabird capture events even in fisheries with relatively high seabird
interaction rates, there is a need for onboard observers dedicated to observing interactions with
species groups of special interest, including seabirds, to provide accurate bycatch data. Observers
should obtain annual training in standardized methods to count seabird abundance during setting
and seabird species identification.
If analysis of observer data for an FFA Member's pelagic longline fishery reveals problematic seabird
interactions, then the Country is encouraged to adopt and implement a Pacific Islands Regional Plan
of Action for Reducing the Incidental Catch of Seabirds in Pelagic Longline Fisheries. Here we
1
present a Draft Pacific Islands Regional Plan of Action Seabirds for consideration by FFA
Members in the case where a longline fishery is determined to have problematic seabird interactions
(problematic in that the fishery is causing population-level effects, is capturing individuals of a
threatened seabird population, or has seabird bycatch levels and rates that could be substantially
reduced through the employment of seabird avoidance methods). A review of seabird bycatch
avoidance methods and initiatives by Regional Fishery Management Organizations and other
organizations to manage seabird bycatch in longline fisheries is conducted to identify suitable
seabird avoidance measures for the Pacific Islands Regional Plan of Action Seabirds. This
assessment considers the operational and economic effects from instituting alternative seabird
avoidance methods. FFA Members with pelagic longline fisheries with problematic seabird
interactions may opt to develop their own National Plan of Action for Reducing the Incidental Catch
of Seabirds in Longline Fisheries. The benefit of developing a National Plan of Action-Seabirds
tailored to their individual fisheries is that solutions to fisheries bycatch problems, including seabird
bycatch, may be fishery-specific.
1. INTRODUCTION
Mortality in longline fisheries is a critical global threat to albatrosses and large petrels (Brothers et al.
1999; Gilman 2001; Gilman et al., 2005). Because seabirds are highly migratory species, which
frequently move in and between national jurisdictions and interact with longline vessels on the high
seas, international collaboration is necessary to effectively address this problem in fisheries with
seabird bycatch problems. Primarily while fishing gear is being set, seabirds are hooked or
entangled, dragged underwater, and drown as the gear sinks. The species of seabirds most
frequently caught by longliners are albatrosses and petrels in the Southern Ocean; Arctic fulmar
(Fulmarus glacialis) (a type of petrel) in North Atlantic fisheries; and albatrosses, gulls, and fulmars
in North Pacific fisheries (Brothers et al. 1999). The health of populations of albatrosses and large
petrels are most at risk from this threat.
While data on seabird bycatch from the world's longline fisheries are scarce, including for
longline fisheries operating in the tropical and subtropical Pacific, available information indicates that
seabird interactions with longline vessels operating in tropical and subtropical areas of the western
and central Pacific Ocean (WCPO) are very rare except in the Hawaii-based longline fisheries
(Watling, 2002). This is because there is low abundance in the tropical and subtropical Pacific,
excluding Hawaii, of the species of seabirds known to be vulnerable to capture in longline gear
(Watling, 2002). This is consistent with results of a literature review conducted by Brothers et al.
(1999), who found only one record (Heberer, 1994) of a seabird being caught in the tropical Pacific
Islands region out of 700,000 observed hooks on 51 fishing trips by the Federated States of
Micronesia-based longline tuna fishery from 1993-1994. Dai et al. (2006) report that an observer on
a Chinese longline bigeye tuna vessel operating in the tropical eastern Pacific Ocean (between 3 -
17 deg. S latitude, 96 - 146 deg. W longitude) from July November 2003 interacted with six
seabirds (shearwater spp., storm petrels and blue-footed boobies) during the observation of 304,390
hooks.1 The western portion of the vessel's fishing grounds was within the EEZ around French
Polynesia, while the majority of the effort was on the high seas east of the EEZ around French
Polynesia (Dai et al., 2006). Australia's Threat Abatement Plan for the Incidental Catch (or Bycatch)
of Seabirds During Oceanic Longline Fishing Operations requires the employment of `serious'
seabird avoidance methods by longline vessels operating South of 25 deg. S. latitude, based on
evidence that seabird bycatch in Australian longline fisheries is problematic in areas South of this
boundary (Environment Australia, 1998).
The aim of this report is to assist Forum Fisheries Agency Members in complying with the
Western and Central Pacific Fisheries Commission (WCPFC) 2005 resolution on the incidental catch
1 It is likely only the shearwater was caught in the longline gear, while the booby likely alighted on the vessel to rest
and the storm petrel might have collided with the vessel.
2
of seabird, and the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization's International Plan of Action
for Reducing the Incidental Catch of Seabirds in Longline Fisheries. The United Nations Food and
Agriculture Organization's International Plan of Action - Seabirds encourages States to voluntarily
implement the plan starting by conducting an assessment of longline fisheries to determine if a
seabird bycatch problem exists. If a problem exists, States are then encouraged to develop a
National Plan of Action for Reducing the Incidental Catch of Seabirds in Longline Fisheries (FAO,
1999). The WCPFC, at their Second Session in December 2005, adopted Resolution 2005-01,
Resolution on the Incidental Catch of Seabirds (Western and Central Pacific Fisheries Commission,
2005). The resolution calls on all Commission Members, Cooperating Non-Members, and
participating Territories to implement the FAO International Plan of Action on seabirds and provide
the Commission with available information to allow for an estimate of seabird mortality in all fisheries
that fall under the WCPF Convention. The resolution further states that at its annual meeting in
2006 the Commission shall consider measures to mitigate the incidental catch of seabirds.
We assess available information on the degree of seabird bycatch in longline fisheries
operating in the western central Pacific Ocean and evaluate the state of data collection programs to
provide information on seabird bycatch in Forum Fisheries Agency Member Countries and territory
pelagic longline fisheries operating in the tropical and subtropical Pacific.2 We also review the state
of knowledge of seabird bycatch avoidance in pelagic and demeral longline fisheries and review
initiatives of Regional Fishery Management Organizations to address seabird bycatch. We discuss
the effects of instituting measures to reduce seabird bycatch in the WCPO, including the need,
operational and economic effects, and consideration of effects on other species groups of special
interest of alternative seabird avoidance methods. Finally, we discuss next steps for Forum
Fisheries Agency Members to implement the WCPFC seabird resolution and United Nations Food
and Agriculture Organization's Plan of Action on seabird bycatch.
This assessment includes longline fisheries of Countries and territories operating in the
tropical and subtropical Pacific Islands region, excluding Hawaii. The assessment covers the
domestic and foreign licensed locally-based longline fisheries and foreign licensed distant water
longline fisheries operating in the EEZs and on the high seas in between these EEZ areas of the
following 21 tropical and subtropical Pacific Island Countries and territories: American Samoa, Cook
Islands, Federated States of Micronesia, Fiji, French Polynesia, Guam, Kiribati, Marshall Islands,
Nauru, New Caledonia, Niue, Northern Mariana Islands, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Samoa,
Solomon Islands, Tokelau, Tonga, Tuvalu, Vanuatu, and Wallis and Futuna (Fig. 1). This includes
all FFA Member Countries and territories except for Australia and New Zealand. Pelagic longline
fisheries set about 582 million hooks in 2003 in the area between 30 deg. S. and 20 deg. N. latitudes
(Secretariat of the Pacific Community Oceanic Fisheries Programme public domain data). Australia,
New Zealand, and Hawaii, USA based longline fisheries were excluded from the study because
the issue is well documented for these countries, and each of these nations has developed a
National Plan of Action Seabirds (New Zealand Department of Conservation and Ministry of
Fisheries, 2000; U.S. National Marine Fisheries Service, 2001; Commonwealth of Australia, 2003).
2 The 16 FFA Member Countries and one Territory are Australia, Cook Islands, Federated States of
Micronesia, Fiji, Kiribati, Marshall Islands, Nauru, New Zealand, Niue, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Samoa,
Solomon Islands, Tokelau, Tonga, Tuvalu, and Vanuatu.
3
Fig. 1. The 21 Pacific Island Countries and territories of the western and
central Pacific, identified with a black circle below their name, which are
included in this assessment of seabird bycatch in pelagic longline fisheries.
2. QUANTITATIVE INFORMATION ON SEABIRD BYCATCH IN LONGLINE FISHERIES
OPERATING IN THE WESTERN AND CENTRAL PACIFIC
2.1. SPC/OFP Longline Observer Dataset
Most observer data held by the Secretariat of the Pacific Community (SPC) Oceanic
Fisheries Programme (OFP) have been collected through the national programmes of SPC member
countries and territories, and some of the national observers have been funded by the OFP. Since
the early 1980's, the OFP has funded occasional observer coverage of pelagic longline trips in the
SPC Region. Fig. 2 shows the number of observed pelagic longline trips in the tropical and
subtropical Pacific conducted by national observer programs of Pacific Island Countries and
territories and the SPC observer program from 1990-2005 (a) excluding observed trips by New
Zealand, Australia and Hawaii national observer programs, and (b) excluding observed domestic
trips by the Australian national observer program. Observer coverage of the entire WCPO pelagic
longline fisheries has been extremely low (< 0.1%) from 1990-2004 (Molony, 2005), and was only
slightly higher with 0.8% observer coverage (total of 15,700,978 hooks observed in 8,786 sets) of a
total of 1,870,705,211 hooks set from 1995-2005 by pelagic longline vessels based in the Countries
and territories of the tropical and subtropical Pacific Islands (SPC unpublished data provided by
Emmanual Schneiter, 16 August 2006, Secretariat of the Pacific Community). OFP conducted a
4
South Pacific Regional Tuna Resource Assessment and Monitoring Project from 1995 to 2000. The
project funded four full time and number of national observers. The project's observers observed
130 longline trips in every fleet operating in the SPC Region excluding the Australia-based longline
fleet, in addition to observing 60 trips by purse seine and pole-and-line vessels. The project
employed a full-time Observer and Port Sampler. In 2000 SPC created a Fishery Monitor
Supervisor post. This position was complimented by a new Fishery Monitoring Supervisor post in
2000 and an Observer and Port Sampler Trainer in 2002 to work with the Forum Fisheries Agency to
provide training, management support, and assistance with data quality control for national observer
programmes.Since the end of this project in 2000 SPC has focused on supporting national observer
programmes (personal communication, Deirdre Brogan, Secretariat of the Pacific Community, 30
August 2006).
160
140
120
s 100
r
ip
f
t
80
e
r
o
b
m
60
u
N
40
20
0
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
Fig. 2a. Observer coverage by national observer programs of Pacific Island Countries and
territories and the SPC observer program of pelagic longline trips made in the tropical and
subtropical western and central Pacific Ocean, excluding observer program coverage from
New Zealand, Australia, and Hawaii, data for 2005 are preliminary, 1990-2005 (SPC
unpublished data provided by Deirdre Brogan, 30 August 2006, Secretariat of the Pacific
Community).
450
400
350
300
s
r
ip 250
f
t
e
r
o 200
b
m
u 150
N
100
50
0
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
Fig. 2b. Observer coverage by national observer programs of Pacific Island Countries and
territories, New Zealand and Hawaii, and the SPC observer program of pelagic longline trips
5
made in the tropical and subtropical western and central Pacific Ocean, excluding observer
program coverage from Australia's domestic fishery, data for 2005 are preliminary, 1990-
2005 (SPC unpublished data provided by Deirdre Brogan, 30 August 2006, Secretariat of the
Pacific Community).
Molony (2005) analyzed the SPC observer dataset3 for pelagic longline seabird bycatch in
the WCPFC region for (i) tropical shallow-setting vessels with < 10 hooks in a basket fishing in the
area between 15 degrees N 10 degrees S, (ii) tropical deep-setting vessels with > 10 hooks in a
basket fishing in the area between 15 degrees N 10 degrees S; and (iii) temperate longline
albacore fisheries fishing in the area between 10-31 degrees S. Between 1990 and 2004, the SPC
observer dataset contains 39 observer records of birds being captured by longline vessels, primarily
from observed trips made by high seas industrial longline fisheries, between 15 degrees N and 31
degrees S in the WCPO in 25 sets (Fig. 3). Eight of these were caught in shallow-setting tropical
longline fisheries, 31 were caught in the temperate longline albacore fisheries and no seabirds were
recorded caught in deep-setting tropical longline fisheries (Molony, 2005). Of these 39 recorded bird
captures, 28 were caught within the Australia EEZ (Fig. 3). From 1995 - 2004, of a total of 6, 846
observed sets between 15 degrees N and 31 degrees S in the WCPO, a total of 12 seabirds were
recorded as being captured (1.8 birds per 1000 sets) (Molony, 2005). When extrapolating the
observer records to all pelagic longlining effort during this period between 15 degrees N and 31
degrees S, there were 1,593 (+/- 8,714 95% CI) seabirds caught per year between 1990 2004
(Molony, 2005). The large error interval around the point estimate is due to the very small sample
size. Eight of these were caught in a single set in 1991 in longline albacore vessel fishing in the
Australian EEZ North of 31 degrees S. No information is available on the species of seabirds that
were captured. Thirty seven of these records listed the species as "unidentified" and two records
identified the birds as `albatross' (Molony, 2005). Of the 39 records of captured seabirds, 28 were
recorded as being dead at the time of gear retrieval, three were alive and no information was
recorded on the condition of the remaining eight (Molony, 2005).
Table 1 summarizes the results of additional analysis of the SPC data holdings from 1995-
2005 for seabird bycatch rates of pelagic longline fisheries operating in the tropical and subtropical
Pacific Islands region, broken down into the same three categories employed by Molony (2005). Of
the 28 observed seabird captures during this period, 15 were caught within the Australia EEZ (12 off
the Australian continent, 3 in the EEZ adjacent to Norfolk Island), 6 were caught on the high seas,
two each were in the Indonesian and Federated States of Micronesia EEZs, and one each was in
the French Polynesia, Marshall Islands and New Zealand EEZs.4
3 The SPC observer dataset for longline fisheries is comprised of data from the SPC observer programme,
the national programmes of Pacific Island Countries and Territories (PICTs) and data from Australia, New
Zealand and Hawaii (Deirdre Brogan, Secretariat of the Pacific Community, personal communication, 30
August 2006).
4 As of 14 August 2006 a data request is being processed by the Secretariat of the Pacific Community
(SPC) to provide seabird bycatch rates in tropical and subtropical Pacific Island region pelagic longline
fisheries stratified by country and territory of vessel registration. At the time of making this information
request, SPC is required to obtain authorization from the national management authorities to make these
data public. However, the Scientific Committee of the Western and Central Pacific Fisheries Commission
recommended to the Commission at its August 2006 meeting that catch data stratified by country should
be placed in the public domain (personal communication, Tim Lawson, SPC, 25 August 2006). This new
policy may become operational if it is adopted by the Commission at its next regular session in December
2006. Available observer data coverage of the Cook Islands-based longline fishery have no records of
seabird captures, however information on the proportion of effort that has been observed and observer
data collection protocols are not readily available (Cook Islands Government, 2006).
6
Table 1. Seabird bycatch rates in pelagic longline fisheries of the tropical and subtropical Pacific
Islands region, 1995-2005 (SPC unpublished data provided by Emmanual Schneiter, 16 August
2006, Secretariat of the Pacific Community).
Number of
Seabird bycatch rate
Number of observed
Fishery Category
observed hooks
(number per 1000
seabirds captured
(sets)
hooks)
Tropical shallow-setting (< 10
500,590 (572)
9
0.018
hooks per basket) pelagic
longline fisheries operating
between 15 deg. N latitude and
10 deg. S latitude
Tropical deep-setting (< 10
212,543 (378)
1
0.0047
hooks per basket) pelagic
longline tuna fisheries operating
between 15 deg. N latitude and
10 deg. S latitude
Pelagic longline albacore
5,245,494 (2,269)
18
0.0034
fisheries operating between 15 -
31 deg. S latitude
In 2002 observer programs supplying data to SPC initiated recording the incidence of
seabirds diving on baited hooks in addition to recording seabird captures. In time these data may
contribute to improving the understanding of seabird species distribution, abundance and behavior
by geographical area and season (personal communication, Deirdre Brogan, Secretariat of the
Pacific Community, 30 August 2006).
One of the scientific objectives of longline observer programs of Pacific Island Countries and
territories that are SPC-members is to collect data on interactions with seabirds and other species
groups of special interest (sea turtles and marine mammals) (Lawson, 2006). The form used by
these observer programs of SPC-member Pacific Island Countries and territories asks the observers
to record all landings, and observers are advised to watch the entire gear hauling operation on the
smaller offshore vessels (personal communication, Deirdre Brogan, SPC Fishery Monitoring
Supervisor, 17 August 2006). Observers on distant water longliners collect data on caught fish
during the first two of every three sets (Lawson, 2006), and thus observers on these large high seas
longliners may not observe seabird captures for a third of the fishing effort.
As is the case with most fishery observer programs, it is likely that observers on pelagic
longline vessels in the tropical and subtropical Pacific do not see all seabird captures during
observed hauls, which would require the observer to be at the hauling station observing each branch
line as it is retrieved, due to time constraints from performing their primary duties of measuring fish
on deck (e.g., crew may drop branch lines containing caught birds or gaff the bird off the hook and
not bring the bird on deck, Gales et al., 1998).
Observer data collection supported by the Secretariat of the Pacific Community, Forum
Fisheries Agency and Republic of Korea are not stratified by time period, geographical area or flag
(Lawson, 2006). Thus, seabird bycatch rates determined from analysis of the Secretariat of the
Pacific Community dataset may not be representative for the region. The estimated seabird catch
rates may be underestimates or overestimates due to the low observer coverage rate and non-
evenly-distributed observer coverage.
7
Fig. 3. Location of the 39 observed seabird captures (identified with a red dot with
adjacent area highlighted yellow) recorded by Secretariat of the Pacific Community
observers between 1990-2004 in pelagic longline fisheries operating between 15 deg. N
and 31 deg. S latitude (Molony, 2005).
Molony (2005) did not assess seabird bycatch levels and rates for longline fisheries
operating North of 15 deg. N and South of 31 deg. S due to limited data for the areas held by the
Secretariat of the Pacific Community. Molony (2005) also reviewed the Secretariat of the Pacific
Community logsheets for 1978-2004 and decided not to use these data for the seabird bycatch
analysis because the capture of non-commercial species is rarely recorded on logsheets: there are
only 22 records of seabird captures in > 1.6 million pelagic longline sets covered in the dataset.
2.2. National Observer Programs and Pelagic Longline Fisheries of the Pacific Islands
Region
Table 2 provides a summary of the national observer program coverage of pelagic longline fisheries
in the tropical and subtropical Pacific Islands region, and identifies which countries/territories have
pelagic longline fisheries based there and operating in their EEZ. There were over 5,000 pelagic
longline vessels operating in the Western and Central Pacific Fisheries Convention Area in 2005
8
catching a total of 242,059 mt (30% of which was albacore), which was 10-12% of the total catch in
this area (Williams and Reid, 2006). Over the past 5 years the Pacific-Islands domestic albacore
fisheries have grown from taking 32% of the total south Pacific albacore longline catch in 1998 to
accounting for over 53% in 2005, while foreign distant water (large freezer vessels that undertake
long trips over several months and operate over large areas) and foreign offshore (smaller vessels
that are domestically based out of Pacific Island ports that target bigeye and yellowfin for the fresh
sashimi market and have ice or chill capacity) fleets have been reduced in size in the WCPO
(Williams and Reid, 2006).
Table 2. Status and trends of national observer program coverage of pelagic longline fisheries
operating in the tropical and subtropical Pacific Islands region by locally-based domestic and foreign
vessels operating in EEZ and high seas waters, and distant water vessels operating in EEZ areas
and on the high seas.
Country or territory
Pelagic longline activity
Pelagic longline observer coverage
American Samoa
In 2002 there were 70 domestic locally-
Observer coverage began in 2005. The U.S.
(USA)
based longline vessels, which caught
National Marine Fisheries Service plans to raise
7,754 mt. There were no foreign
observer coverage to 20%.
licensed vessels fishing in the EEZ
around American Samoa in 2002.
Source: Secretariat of the Pacific Community
(2003).
Source: Secretariat of the Pacific
Community (2003).
Chinese Taipei
The distant-water longline fleet
In 2001 the Chinese Taipei Fisheries
(Taiwan)
operating in the Western and Central
Administration initiated an experimental observer
Pacific Fisheries Convention Area
program. Two observers were deployed on
increased by 76% from 20002003,
Chinese Taipei vessels in the Pacific Ocean each
from 78 in 2000 to 137 vessels in 2003,
year from 2002 - 2004. In 2005 observers from
but has stabilized at 133 vessels in
the Chinese Taipei Longline Observer
2005. In 2004 there were 1,060 active
Programme observed six pelagic longline trips in
offshore vessels based out of ports in
the Pacific Ocean, and observed four trips in
the WCPO.
2004. It is not clear if these trips were conducted
in the tropical and subtropical Pacific Islands
Sources: Chinese-Taipei Government
region. Observers are required to photograph
(2005); Williams and Reid (2006).
and record the species of all caught seabirds,
record the number and condition of caught
seabirds and collect the bill of dead seabirds.
Sources: Chinese-Taipei Government (2005);
Lawson (2006).
China
There has been recent expansion of
No information is available on a national observer
Chinese distant-water longliners
program for China's longline vessels.
targeting albacore on the high seas of
the South Pacific and targeting bigeye
and yellowfin tuna in the eastern areas
of the tropical Western and central
Pacific Fisheries Convention Area.
Source: Williams and Reid (2006).
Cook Islands
There are currently between 22 and 33
In 2002, the Cook Islands Ministry of Marine
domestic Cook Islands-based longline
Resources appointed an Observer Coordinator
vessels active in the Western and
and initiated an observer training program. The
Central Pacific Fisheries Commission
government has identified a target of 20%
Convention Area. There was one
observer coverage of the longline fisheries.
domestic Cook Islands-based longline
Recent coverage has been about 5%. All
vessel active in the WCPFC Convention
observers are based in Rarotonga and,
Area in 2000, 4 in 2001, 17 in 2002, 51
consequently, coverage is likely to be biased to
in 2003, 40 in 2004, and 27 in 2005. In
the southern area of the EEZ. In 2004, SPC and
9
2005 the domestic vessels set a total of
FFA-supported observers observed four trips.
7,491,200 hooks. Over 67% of the total
Cook Islands Government support has been
catch of 3,430 mt in 2005 was albacore
allocated for observer and port sampling
tuna. Almost all of the fishing effort is at
programs in 2006.
grounds within the Cook Islands EEZ.
Pelagic longline vessels from American
Sources: Secretariat of the Pacific Community
Samoa, Samoa and Taiwan fish in the
(2003); Cook Islands Government (2006);
Cook Islands EEZ. In 2002 there were 9 Lawson (2006).
foreign licensed vessels that fished in
the Cook Islands EEZ, which caught 83
mt.
Sources: Secretariat of the Pacific
Community (2003); Cook Islands
Government (2006); Lawson (2006).
Federated States of
In 2005 there were 20 domestic locally-
The FSM National Oceanic Resource
Micronesia
based longline vessels, which primarily
Management Authority established an observer
fished in the Republic of the Marshall
program in 1979, which in 2005 had 7 trained
Islands EEZ, setting 17,887,500 hooks
observers. Observer coverage of longline effort
and catching 334 mt (based on logsheet
has been < 1%. In 2004, SPC and FFA-
data, believed to be an underestimate
supported observers observed six trips. The
by the FSM Government). In 2005 there access agreement with Japan allows FSM
were 138 foreign licensed vessels that
observers to observe a total of six longline trips
fished in the FSM EEZ (104 from Japan, per year. Observer coverage of distant water
31 from Taiwan, 2 from Belize, and 1
Taiwanese and Japanese-flagged longline
from the Philippines), which caught
vessels licensed to fish in the FSM EEZ is difficult
3,747 mt.
for placement of FSM observers because these
vessels are based out of Guam.
Sources: Secretariat of the Pacific
Community (2003); Federated States of
Sources: Secretariat of the Pacific Community
Micronesia Government (2006).
(2003); Federated States of Micronesia
Government (2006); Lawson (2006)
Fiji
In 2002 there were 119 domestic locally-
The Fiji Department of Fisheries of the Ministry of
based longline vessels, which caught
Fisheries and Forests manages an observer
10,974 mt, and there were 15 foreign
program with about 11 observers. In 2002 this
licensed vessels that fished in the Fiji
agency established an Observer Coordinator
EEZ, which caught 79 mt.
position. Observer coverage has been < 1%. In
2004, SPC and FFA-supported observers
Source: Secretariat of the Pacific
observed 11 trips.
Community (2003).
Sources: Secretariat of the Pacific Community
(2003); Lawson (2006).
French Polynesia
There were 72 active pelagic longline
The Service de la Pêche established an observer
(France)
offshore vessels in 2005, and 75 active
program in 2002 with a Monitoring
vessels in 2004. Of the 72 active 2005
Supervisor/Liaison Officer and three observers.
vessels, 26 were freezer longliners, 40
There has been 3-5% observer coverage of
were smaller vessels that preserve their
pelagic longline trips. In 2004, SPC and FFA-
fish with ice, and 6 use a combination of
supported observers observed 20 trips.
ice and freezers to preserve their catch.
In 2005 the vessels set a total of
Sources: Secretariat of the Pacific Community
21,454,126 hooks. Over 47% of the
(2003); Lawson (2006); Ponsonnet (2006).
total catch of 5,082 mt in 2005 was
albacore tuna. Authorization for foreign
fishing in the French Polynesian EEZ
was discontinued in 2001. There were
no active coastal pelagic longline
skipjack `bonitier' vessels in 2005 or
2006.
10
Sources: Secretariat of the Pacific
Commnuity (2003); Lawson (2006);
Ponsonnet (2006).
Guam (USA)
There are no locally based domestic or
NA
foreign licensed pelagic longline vessels
and no distant water foreign licensed
longline vessels fishing in the EEZ
around Guam. One Guam-based
pelagic longline vessel is expected to
initiate fishing in 2006.
Source: Personal communication,
Manuel Duenas, Guam Fishermen's
Cooperative Association, 1 July 2006.
Indonesia Indonesian
catches contribute about
There is no national observer program for longline
17% of total tuna catches for the
vessels. The Indonesian Directorate General for
Western and Central Pacific Fisheries
Capture Fisheries reports data on annual catch
Convention Area.
estimates, licensing and export data. The
reported statistics are highly aggregated, such
Source: MRAG Americas (2003).
that a large proportion of estimated catch is not
identified by gear type, catch information for two
or more species are aggregated under the
category `tuna', and there is limited information
accompanying data to explain the sampling
protocols that were used. No information is
available on the location of catch and effort.
Source: MRAG Americas (2003).
Japan
In 2004 there were a total of 1,447
No information was available on national observer
longline vessels operating in the
coverage in Japan's 2005 national tuna fisheries
Western and Central Pacific Fisheries
report to the WCPFC.
Convention Area, which set 118 million
hooks. 484 of these vessels were large
Source: Uosaki et al. (2005).
distant water longliners.
Source: Uosaki et al. (2005).
Kiribati
In 2002 there were no domestic locally-
The Republic of Kiribati Fisheries Division of the
based longline vessels. There were 89
Ministry of Natural Resources Development
foreign licensed vessels that fished in
manages an observer program with 20 observers
the Kiribati EEZ in 2002, which caught
and in 2002 established an Observer Coordinator
2,144 mt.
post. Observer coverage is < 1%.
Source: Secretariat of the Pacific
Source: Secretariat of the Pacific Community
Community (2003).
(2003).
Korea
In 2004 there were a total of 190
In 2002 the Ministry of Maritime Affairs and
longline tuna vessels active in the
Fisheries created an observer program for distant
Western and Central Pacific Fisheries
water longline vessels. There was one observed
Convention Area, catching a total of
pelagic longline trip in 2005 and zero in 2004 in
183,490 mt.
the Western and Central Pacific Fisheries
Convention Area. Observers from the Republic of
Source: Moon et al. (2005).
Korea Longline Observer Programme are
expected to collect information on interactions
with seabirds and other species groups of special
interest. There is no target observer coverage
rate.
Sources: Moon et al. (2005); Lawson (2006).
11
Marshall Islands
In 2005 92 foreign licensed locally-
In 2002 the Marshall Islands Marine Resources
based vessels (44 from China, 25 from
Authority established a National Observer and
Japan, 6 from Federated States of
Port Sampling Coordinator. There are 9
Micronesia, 5 from Taiwan, 2 from
observers in the national observer program, who
Korea, and 10 from `other' countries)
observed 26 longline trips in 2005. In 2004, SPC
caught 3,768 mt of which 43% was
and FFA-supported observers observed 23 trips.
bigeye tuna. In 2005 there were no
active domestic locally-based longline
Sources: Secretariat of the Pacific Community
vessels; there was one active domestic
(2003); Lawson (2006); Muller (2006).
locally-based longline vessel in 2004,
which set 38,300 hooks and caught 8
mt.
Sources: Secretariat of the Pacific
Community (2003); Lawson (2006);
Muller (2006).
Nauru
In 2005 there were no locally-based
Nauru does not have a national observer
foreign licensed pelagic longline vessels
program.
or foreign licensed distant water vessels
fishing in the Nauru EEZ. Two domestic Source: Secretariat of the Pacific Community
locally-based pelagic longline vessels
(2003).
owned by the Nauru Fisheries and
Marine Resources Authority, which
caught < 1 mt in 2005.
Sources: Secretariat of the Pacific
Community (2003); Nauru Fisheries and
Marine Resources Authority (2006).
New Caledonia
In 2005 there were 27 domestic locally-
From 2000-2005 national observers observed 39
(France)
based longline vessels licensed to fish in longline trips of 286 sets and 520,615 hooks.
the EEZ adjacent to New Caledonia, of
Observers reported no observations of
which 23 were active and set 5 million
interactions with seabirds, sea turtles and marine
hooks and caught 2,473 mt (1,590 mt of
mammals. The New Caledonia Service de la
which was albacore). Since 2001 no
Marine Marchande et des Pêches Maritimes hired
foreign licensed longline vessels have
a Monitoring Supervisor/Liaison Officer and one
been permitted to fish in the EEZ
observer in 2002. These staff are based at the
adjacent to New Caledonia. In 2002
Secretariat of the Pacific Community, and SPC
there were 25 domestic locally-based
manages observer placement and data
pelagic longline vessels, which caught a
processing. About 5% of longline trips have been
total of 1,936 mt (primarily albacore
observed. In 2004, SPC and FFA-supported
tuna). These vessels fish exclusively in
observers observed 12 trips.
the New Caledonia EEZ. There is no
licensed foreign fishing in the EEZ
Sources: Secretariat of the Pacific Community
around New Caledonia.
(2003); New Caledonia Government (2006);
Lawson (2006).
Sources: Secretariat of the Pacific
Community (2003); New Caledonia
Government (2006); Lawson (2006).
Niue
In 2005 there were 13 foreign licensed
The Niue Fisheries Division of the Ministry of
locally-based longline vessels that were
Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries is planning to
authorized to fish in the Niue EEZ under
establish an observer program to place observers
a charter agreement. These 13 vessels
on the new joint venture locally-based longline
set 2,631,500 hooks and caught 123 mt
vessels.
of which 55 mt was albacore. No
foreign licensed distant water longline
Sources: Secretariat of the Pacific Community
vessels operated in the Niue EEZ in
(2003); Tafatu (2006).
2005.
12
Sources: Secretariat of the Pacific
Community (2003); Tafatu (2006).
Northern Mariana
There are no locally-based domestic or
NA
Islands (USA)
foreign licensed pelagic longline vessels
or foreign licensed distant water longline
vessels fishing in the EEZ around the
Northern Mariana Islands.
Source: Secretariat of the Pacific
Commnuity (2003).
Palau
A locally-based pelagic longline fleet is
The Palau government is establishing a national
comprised of foreign licensed vessels
fisheries observer program. In 2006 SPC and
from Taiwan, China and Belize.
FFA conducted an observer training course in
Japanese distant water longline vessels
Palau and 12 participants from Palau received
operate in the Palau EEZ. In 2005 there observer certification. In 2004, SPC and FFA-
were 115 foreign licensed locally-based
supported observers observed five trips.
vessels (107 from Taiwan, 6 from
Belize, and 2 from China) and there
Sources: Secretariat of the Pacific Community
were 12 foreign licensed distant water
(2003); Lawson (2006); Sisior (2006).
vessels from Japan.
Sources: Secretariat of the Pacific
Community (2003); Lawson (2006);
Sisior (2006).
Papua New Guinea
In 2006 there were 18 active domestic
The PNG National Fisheries Authority observer
locally-based longline tuna vessels and
program is the largest in the Pacific Islands region
9 active domestic locally-based longline
with about 100 observers located at 10 seaports
shark vessels. In the previous two years around the country. Observer coverage of the
there were 39 active longline tuna
two domestic longline fisheries has been about
vessels and 9 active longline shark
5%. In 2005 PNG observers observed 9 longline
vessels. Since 1995 foreign licensed
tuna trips and 15 longline shark trips. In 2004,
vessels are not permitted to fish in the
SPC and FFA-supported observers observed 11
PNG EEZ. In 2004 the 39 longline tuan
longline trips. The Papua New Guinea
vessels set 9,318,800 hooks and caught Government's 2006 national tuna fisheries report
4,810 mt in the Western and Central
to the Scientific Committee of the WCPFC does
Pacific Fisheries Convention Area. In
not report bycatch of seabirds, sea turtles or
2004 the 9 longline shark vessels
marine mammals in the longline fisheries.
caught a total of 1,474 mt.
Sources: Secretariat of the Pacific Community
Sources: Secretariat of the Pacific
(2003); Kumoru and Koren (2006); Lawson
Community (2003); Kumoru and Koren
(2006).
(2006).
Philippines
In 2004 there were about 14 domestic
There is no national observer program. Catch
longline tuna vessels and 25 distant
effort data are reported, but coverage is low and
water longline vessels, which operate in
only disaggregated by broad fishing area and
the Pacific, Indian and Atlantic Oceans.
catch and effort are not classified by gear type.
The Philippines catch comprise about
There is low confidence in the reliability of some
13% of total tuna catches in the Western data reported by the Philippines Bureau of
and Central Pacific Fisheries
Agricultural Statistics.
Convention Area.
Source: MRAG Americas (2003).
Sources: MRAG Americas (2003);
Barut and Garvilles (2005).
Samoa
In 2002 there were 80 domestic locally-
There is no observer coverage of the domestic
based longline vessels, which caught
longline fishery.
4,901 mt. There were no foreign
licensed vessels that fished in the
Source: Secretariat of the Pacific Community
13
Samoa EEZ in 2002.
(2003).
Source: Secretariat of the Pacific
Community (2003).
Solomon Islands
In 2002 there were 25 domestic locally-
The Solomon Islands Fisheries Division of the
based longline vessels, which caught
Ministry of Fisheries and Marine Resources
856 mt, and there were 46 foreign
operates an observer program with about 12
licensed vessels that fished in the
observers, an Observer Coordinator and
Solomon Islands EEZ, which caught 839 Assistant Observer Coordinator. In 2004, SPC
mt.
and FFA-supported observers observed 21 trips.
Observer coverage has been at about 20% for
Source: Secretariat of the Pacific
the domestic fleet but there has been no
Community (2003).
coverage of foreign vessels.
Sources: Secretariat of the Pacific Community
(2003); Lawson (2006).
Spain
In 2004 eight Spanish pelagic longline
No observer data are available from the Spanish
shallow-setting longline swordfish
longline swordfish vessels that fished in the
vessels began to fish in the WCPO.
WCPO in 2004.
These eight vessels set just over 1
million hooks in 2004. Five of these
Source: Instituto Espanol de Oceanografia.
vessels were based out of Indonesia.
Source: Instituto Espanol de
Oceanografia.
Tokelau
In 2002 there were no locally-based
NA
domestic or foreign licensed pelagic
longline vessels or foreign licensed
distant water vessels fishing in the
Tokelau EEZ.
Source: Secretariat of the Pacific
Community (2003).
Tonga
In 2005 there were 15 domestic locally-
There is no observer coverage of locally-based
based longline vessels, which caught
longline vessels. In 2004, SPC and FFA-
552 mt. There were no foreign licensed
supported observers observed 11 trips.
vessels that fished in the Tonga EEZ in
2005.
Sources: Secretariat of the Pacific Community
(2003); Lawson (2006); Tonga Government
Sources: Secretariat of the Pacific
(2006).
Community (2003); Tonga Government
(2006).
Tuvalu
There are no locally-based domestic or
There is no national observer program and there
foreign longline vessels. In 2005 there
is negligible observer coverage of foreign
were 51 foreign licensed distant water
licensed longline vessels. In 2004 SPC and FFA
pelagic longline vessels (42 from Korea,
held an observer training course in Tuvalu and 17
8 from Taiwan, and 1 from Fiji). All 51 of participants passed the course. No national
these vessels actively fished in the
observers have been placed on longline vessels
Tuvalu EEZ in 2005 and caught 980 mt. due to a lack of funding. The Tuvalu Fisheries
Department is seeking financial support to
Sources: Secretariat of the Pacific
establish a national fisheries observer program.
Community (2003); Tupau (2006).
Sources: Secretariat of the Pacific Community
(2003); Tupau (2006).
Vanuatu
In 2005 there were 55 Vanuatu-based
Vanuatu does not have a national fisheries
distant water and offshore longline
observer program.
14
vessels of which 11 were authorized to
fish in the Vanuatu EEZ. In 2002 there
Source: Secretariat of the Pacific Community
were 13 domestic locally-based longline
(2003); Vanuatu Government (2006).
vessels, which caught 354 mt, and there
were 72 foreign licensed locally-based
vessels (Fiji and Taiwan-flagged) that
fished in the Vanuatu EEZ, which caught
2,303 mt.
Sources: Secretariat of the Pacific
Community (2003); Vanuatu
Government (2006); Williams and Reid
(2006).
Wallis and Futuna
There are no locally-based domestic or
NA
(France)
foreign licensed pelagic longline vessels
or foreign licensed distant water vessels
fishing in the EEZ around Wallis and
Futuna.
Source: Secretariat of the Pacific
Community (2003)
Observer coverage in the region's high seas pelagic longline fisheries may increase in the
future due to provisions of the Western and Central Pacific Fisheries Convention. Article 28 of the
Convention calls for the Commission to operate a regional observer program and requires flag states
to ensure that their vessels, except those that operate exclusively in waters under national
jurisdiction, are prepared to accept an observer from the Commission's regional observer program.
Flag state permission is required for Commission observers to continue their duties if the observed
vessel enters the EEZ of the flag state. Vessels that fish exclusively in the national waters of the flag
state are not required to carry Commission observers (Secretariat of the Pacific Community, 2003).
3. INDIRECT INFORMATION ON THREAT TO SEABIRDS FROM INTERACTIONS WITH
LONGLINE FISHERIES OF THE WESTERN AND CENTRAL PACIFIC
3.1. Distributions of Albatrosses and Large Petrels to Determine Overlap with Fishing
Grounds
In the absence of data from direct observations of seabird bycatch levels and rates in longline
fisheries, information on temporal and spatial overlap between the distributions of seabird species
known to be vulnerable to capture in longline fisheries and the location of longline fishing grounds
can provide an indication of the existence of a bird bycatch problem in individual fisheries. Small
(2006) presents information from remote tracking data (from satellite tracking devices attached to the
back of birds, geolocators attached to birds' legs and Global Positioning System devices) on the
distribution of albatrosses and petrels in the Western and Central Pacific Fisheries Convention Area,
and compares this to the spatial distribution of pelagic longline fishing effort in the Western and
Central Pacific Fisheries Convention Area for the period 2000-2003 using data from the Secretariat
of the Pacific Community Oceanic Fisheries Programme public domain dataset. The study did not
include information on the distribution of shearwater species identified by Watling (2002) as
potentially vulnerable to longline bycatch in the tropical and subtropical Pacific Islands region. Small
(2006) explains that remote tracking data are not available for shearwaters and some petrels
believed to be vulnerable to capture in longline gear. Small (2006) found that albatross distribution
is concentrated outside the tropical and subtropical Pacific Islands region, being concentrated North
of 20 deg. N. latitude and South of 30 deg. S. latitude, and that these seabirds are found both on the
high seas and in EEZs. Waugh (2006) conducts a similar study, reviewing the distributions of
albatross and petrel species within the Western and Central Pacific Fisheries Convention Area from
15
data on at-sea observations, banding recoveries and satellite telemetry, finding that 16 albatross
species and 60 petrel species occur in the WCPFC area.
3.2. Fisher Interviews
Interviews with longline fishers can provide an indication of the extent of seabird interactions (e.g.,
Jahncke et al., 2001). Biases inherent in social surveys such as these include limitations of recall,
inclusion of socially or politically desirable responses, or simply a cultural bias against perceived
management intrusion within the fishing society. Given the political nature of the seabird bycatch
issue, information received from interviewing fishers is likely subject to uni-directional bias. Also,
fishers may not be able to accurately identify seabird species. Having expressed the large
limitations of information on bycatch collected from interviews with longline fishers, information from
interviews can provide very useful insights into the longline industry practices and attitudes towards
seabird bycatch.
Watling (2002) interviewed sixteen longline captains, vessel owners and researchers with
experience of longline fishing operations in Tonga, Fiji, Cook Island, French Polynesia, New
Caledonia, Papua New Guinea, and Samoa, to obtain information on the occurrence of seabird
interactions. Responses were consistent that seabird interactions in these fisheries are extremely
rare events, and two respondents recalled catching three or fewer seabirds in their lifetime
experience longline fishing in the tropical Pacific Islands region (Watling, 2002). A captain of a Fiji-
based longline vessel reported that seabirds are often present and remove bait from hooks and
forage on discarded bait and offal, but never observed a seabird being captured (Watling, 2002).
3.3. Identifying Tropical and Subtropical Pacific Seabird Species that May be Susceptible to
Longline Capture Based on Observations of these Species Being Captured in Temperate
Zone Longline Fisheries
Based on available information, seabird species that may be vulnerable to capture in pelagic longline
fisheries operating in the tropical and subtropical Pacific Islands region include the: Wedge-tailed
Shearwater (Puffinus pacificus), Sooty Shearwater (P. griseus) Short-tailed Shearwaters (P.
tenuirostris), Flesh-footed Shearwater (P. carneipes), Pink-footed Shearwater (P. creatopus),
Christmas Shearwater (P. nativitatis), Newell's Shearwater (P. newlli), Heinroth's Shearwater (P.
heinrothi), Juan Fernandez Petrel (Pterodroma externa), and Murphy's Petrel (Pterodroma ultima)
(Watling, 2002).
This species list is based primarily on observations of the species of seabirds that are
commonly captured in longline fisheries outside of the tropical and subtropical Pacific Islands region.
However, observations of a seabird species bycatch levels in a longline fishery in one area may not
necessarily be an accurate predictor of the existence or lack of problematic bycatch of this species in
other regions. There is a need for onboard observer data across seasons and different parts of
ranges of seabirds thought to be vulnerable to capture in longline fisheries in tropical and subtropical
Pacific Island longline fisheries, because it is possible that a seabird species may have different
foraging strategies when breeding vs. not breeding, or whilst migrating vs. non migrating. Observer
coverage of Pacific Island longline fisheries is needed to directly determine which seabird species, if
any, are caught in tropical and subtropical Pacific longline fisheries.
The Hawaii-based longline tuna and swordfish fisheries catch seabirds primarily at fishing
grounds North of the Hawaii Islands and predominantly catch black-footed (Phoebastria nigripes)
and Laysan (P. immutabilis) albatrosses, which range throughout the North Pacific primarily North of
20 degrees N. latitude; observer data show that the capture of other seabird species in the Hawaii-
based longline fisheries are extremely rare events (Gilman et al., 2005). Based on their ranges, is
not likely that Laysan or Black-footed albatrosses are caught in tropical and subtropical Pacific
longline fisheries other than the Hawaii-based fleet. Watling (2002) reviews seabird bycatch data
from Australia and New Zealand to determine if the ranges of the species and species groups known
to be caught in these nation's longline fisheries overlap with tropical and subtropical Pacific longline
fishing grounds, and concludes that, of the four species groups (petrels, shearwaters, boobies and
skuas) that are potentially vulnerable to capture in longline fisheries in the tropical Pacific, only four
16
seabirds of the 32 that are caught in the New Zealand and Australia fisheries are found in the
tropical Pacific. These four species are the Wedge-tailed Shearwater, a common breeding resident,
Sooty and Short-tailed Shearwaters, which are common annual migrants through the Pacific Islands
region, and the Flesh-footed Shearwater, which is an uncommon annual migrant (Watling, 2002). It
is not known if the three shearwater species that are annual migrants forage in the tropical Pacific, or
if they simply migrate across the region to and from the Southern and Northern Pacific (Watling,
2002). Watling (2002) also concluded that the species known to be caught in Australia and New
Zealand-based pelagic longline fisheries are > 500 g in weight, corresponding to relatively large
sized seabirds. Based on this observation, Watling (2002) identifies seven additional seabird
species (Pink-footed Shearwater, Christmas Shearwater, Newell's Shearwater, Heinroth's
Shearwater, Hawaiian Petrel, Juan Fernandez Petrel, and Murphy's Petrel) that occur in the tropical
Pacific that may be vulnerable to capture in pelagic longline fisheries, these being the seabirds that
are > 500 g excluding those whose range overlaps with the Australia and New Zealand longline
fleets and have not been observed to be caught in these fisheries. Six of these seven seabird
species are classified as threatened by IUCN's Red List (Watling, 2002). The Hawaiian Petrel,
which breeds in the Hawaiian Islands and migrates to the Southern Hemisphere where it overlaps
with fishing grounds of the Australian pelagic longline fleet, has not been observed to interact with
the Australia-based longline vessels (Environment Australia, 1998). This demonstrates that a
seabird species' weight is not the only factor to consider to determine its vulnerability to capture in
longline fisheries. A species' behavior is a more important attribute to consider, as certain species
exhibit no inclination to interact with fishing vessels.
4. REVIEW OF SEABIRD BYCATCH AVOIDANCE METHODS BENEFITS FROM A
REGIONAL SINK RATE PERFORMANCE STANDARD
A review of methods designed to reduce seabird bycatch in pelagic longline fisheries reveals that
there are numerous methods that, when employed to prescription, can reduce seabird bycatch to
negligible levels (Gilman et al. 2005). A review of most seabird avoidance methods in use in pelagic
and demersal longline fisheries can be found in Brothers et al. (1999) and Gilman et al. (2005).
Over the past 15 years, national governments, regional organizations and longline industries have
developed and tested seabird avoidance methods in longline fisheries, which can be divided into six
categories of methods to (Brothers 1995; Brothers et al. 1999; Gilman et al., 2005):
(1) Alter fishing practices to avoid peak areas and periods of bird foraging (e.g., night setting,
area and seasonal closures);
(2) Reduce the detection of baited hooks by birds (e.g., blue-dyed bait, shielded lights);
(3) Limit bird access to baited hooks (e.g., side-setting, underwater setting devices, thawed bait,
addition of more weight closer to hooks, bait-casting machines);
(4) Deter birds from taking baited hooks (e.g., bird-scaring line with streamers, acoustic
deterrents, water cannon, towed buoy);
(5) Reduce the attractiveness of baited hooks to birds (e.g., artificial lures, artificial smell); and
(6) Reduce injury to hooked birds (e.g., improved bird handling).
Establishment of a regional or international performance standard for longline hook sink rate,
and prescribing gear weighting designs that meet this standard that are achievable by all longline
fisheries, will contribute to resolving the problem of low vessel use of seabird avoidance methods
(Gilman et al. 2005). Line weighting is an effective seabird avoidance method, which, when used in
combination with other seabird avoidance methods such as night setting and side setting, can nearly
eliminate seabird capture (Gilman et al. 2005; Brothers and Gilman, 2006). Prescribed gear
weighting designs can facilitate high compliance because compliance is easily assessed by fishery
management authorities through dockside inspections, and it is unlikely that crew will change the
gear configuration at sea due to the time it would take to do so. Furthermore, in some demersal
17
longline fisheries, fishers do not alter gear from the way it is provided by gear manufacturers, who
would build the gear according to the international prescription. While standardized line weighting
and hook sink rate alone would not adequately minimize seabird interactions in all fisheries, a
regional or international standard would be an important step forward, especially for fleets that
currently do not employ any seabird bycatch reduction methods, including illegal, unregulated and
unreported fisheries.
5. INITIATIVES OF REGIONAL FISHERY MANAGEMENT ORGANIZATIONS
Gilman (2001), Small (2005) and Western and Central Pacific Fisheries Commission (2006) review
actions taken by international organizations and Regional Fishery Management Organizations to
address seabird bycatch problems in longline fisheries. Table 3 provides an updated review, and
where information is available, evaluates the effectiveness and problems with specific initiatives. Of
the Regional Fishery Management Organizations, only the Commission for the Conservation of
Antarctic Marine Living Resources and Commission for the Conservation of Southern Bluefin Tuna
require the employment of seabird avoidance methods.
Table 3. Actions by regional fishery management organizations and other international
organizations to address seabird bycatch in longline fisheries.
Initiatives to Address Seabird Bycatch in
Evaluation of Efficacy and
RFMO
Longline Fisheries
Any Problems with Initiatives
Commission for
The CCAMLR area of application approximates the
Seabird bycatch levels have been
the Conservation
waters south of the Antarctic Convergence.
reduced by 99% from 1997 levels,
of Antarctic Marine CCAMLR first adopted mitigation measures in 1991
prior to the institution of seabird
Living Resources
to reduce seabird bycatch (measure 29/X).
conservation measures, to 2003
(CCAMLR)
CCAMLR's current seabird bycatch measures for
levels (a reduction from 6,589 to 15
longline fisheries are specified in Conservation
seabirds captured) (Small, 2005).
Measure 25-02, and apply to Contracting Party
Due to industry attitudes towards the
longline fisheries when fishing in the Convention area prescribed seabird avoidance
(CCAMLR, 2005). Regulations include requirements
methods, In the absence of the
for tori (bird scaring) lines, line weighting, a ban on
current 100% observer coverage, it is
the disposal of offal during setting or hauling gear, a
unlikely that the 99% reduction in
requirement for night setting and restrictions on deck-
seabird bycatch levels would be
lighting. CCAMLR has also established seabird
maintained, thus calling into question
bycatch limits in exploratory fisheries and has
the suitability of use of the prescribed
delayed the opening of fishing seasons until the end
mitigation measures in other fisheries
of the breeding season of most albatrosses and
lacking high observer coverage. It is
petrels (CCAMLR, 2004, 2005; Western and Central
unclear if CCAMLR measures taken
Pacific Fisheries Commission, 2006).
to combat illegal, unregulated, and
There is 100% coverage of longline fishing
unreported `pirate' fisheries have
vessels by independent observers (of different
been effective in reducing seabird
nationality than the vessel's flag State). In December bycatch levels in these illegal
2000 Vessel Monitoring Systems became compulsory fisheries (Small, 2005).
to all CCAMLR Member fisheries within the
Convention area except krill fisheries (Conservation
Measure 149/XVII). CCAMLR has a catch
documentation program for Patagonian toothfish in
an effort to combat illegal, unreported, and
unregulated fishing.
Inter-American
IATTC manages tuna and tuna-like stocks in the East There is insufficient information to
Tropical Tuna
Pacific. IATTC has not required the employment of
assess the degree of seabird bycatch
Commission
seabird avoidance measures in Member longline
problems in Member longline
(IATTC)
fisheries. Observer coverage is not required on
fisheries IATTC does not require the
longline vessels. IATTC Resolution C-05-01 on the
employment of seabird avoidance
incidental mortality of seabirds, recommends
measures by longline vessels.
implementation of the FAO International Plan of
IATTC could improve efforts to
18
Action Seabirds, the collection of information on
combat illegal fishing activities by
seabird interactions, including bycatch in fisheries
establishing a port and at-sea
under the purview of IATTC, and for the Working
inspection program, expanding the
Group on Stock Assessment to assess the impact of
documentation scheme to record
seabird bycatch in tuna fisheries operating in the
catch levels and not just trade, and
eastern Pacific (Inter-American Tropical Tuna
requiring member vessels to use
Commission, 2005).
VMS.
To combat illegal fishing activity, IATTC manages
a `positive list' of legal longline vessels and has a
bigeye trade documentation scheme.
Commission for
CCSBT manages Southern bluefin tuna stocks, a
Insufficient information is available to
the Conservation
species that is most abundant between 30 - 50º
assess compliance with or the
of Southern
South. Australia, Japan, Korea, New Zealand and
efficacy of the requirement for tori line
Bluefin Tuna
Taiwan are CCSBT Members and the Philippines is a use on seabird bycatch. CCSBT has
(CCSBT)
cooperating non-member. Since 1995, under the
insufficient data collection on seabird
auspices of CCSBT, Members have required the
bycatch. The requirement for use of
employment of bird scaring lines (also called a tori
tori lines is likely insufficient as
line, a device consisting of a line with suspended
requiring tori lines likely results in low
streamers, deployed from a pole astern during line
compliance when there is insufficient
setting to deter birds from taking baited hooks) in
surveillance because tori lines are
their longline fisheries when at grounds South of 30
relatively impractical (Gilman et al.,
deg. S. latitude (Western and Central Pacific
2005). CCSBT efforts to combat
Fisheries Commission, 2006). In 1995, CCSBT also
illegal, unregulated and unreported
adopted recommendations on data collection and
illegal fisheries are likely ineffective
education for bycatch in the Southern bluefin tuna
and could be improved, by instituting
fishery, including seabirds (Gilman, 2001). In 2001
a VMS program, a port and at-sea
CCSBT adopted a target of 10% observer coverage
inspection scheme, and catch
of Member's longline fisheries, Members are not
documentation program that records
required to collect information on seabird bycatch and total catch (Small, 2005).
are not required to share observer data with CCSBT.
CCSBT institutes two programs to contribute to
address illegal, unregulated, and unreported illegal
fisheries: (i) CCSBT manages a list of authorized
vessels, expanded in October 2004 to include
vessels of all sizes, and (ii) has a trade
documentation scheme.
World
IUCN Resolution 1.15, adopted in 1996, entitled
These IUCN resolutions and
Conservation
Incidental Mortality of Seabirds in Longline Fisheries,
recommendation are advisory and not
Union (IUCN)
calls upon States to adopt the goal of reducing
legally binding.
seabird bycatch within longline fisheries to
insignificant levels for affected species, and
immediately implement seabird bycatch reduction
measures by longline fisheries (IUCN, 1996). IUCN
Resolution 2.66, Pirate Fishing and Seabird Mortality
from Longlining in the Southern Ocean and Adjacent
Waters, adopted in 2000, calls upon States and
regional fishery bodies to combat illegal, unreported,
and unregulated pirate fishing for Patagonian
toothfish (Dissostichus eleginoides); to reduce the
mortality of seabirds in longline fisheries in the
Southern Ocean; to comply with the FAO
International Plan of Action on seabird bycatch; and
to support development of an Agreement for
Southern Hemisphere Albatrosses and Petrels
(IUCN, 2000a). IUCN Recommendation 2.75,
Southern Hemisphere Albatross and Petrel
Conservation, adopted at the Second World
Conservation Congress of IUCN, calls upon States
and regional fishery bodies to take action to conserve
Southern Hemisphere albatrosses and petrels,
19
identify threats to these seabirds, participate in
meetings to adopt an Agreement for the Conservation
of Southern Hemisphere Albatrosses and Petrels,
implement CCAMLR conservation measures, and
implement the FAO International Plan of Action on
seabird bycatch (IUCN, 2000b). Resolution 1.16,
Fisheries By-catch, and Recommendation 19.61, By-
catch of Non-target Species, also call on States and
fishery bodies to address the problem of seabird
bycatch in longline fisheries.
United Nations
The FAO International Plan of Action for Reducing
The IPOA--Seabirds is voluntary and
Food and
Incidental Catch of Seabirds in Longline Fisheries
not legally binding.
Agriculture
(IPOA--Seabirds). The IPOA--Seabirds calls on all
Organization
States to implement the plan starting by conducting
(FAO)
an assessment of longline fisheries to determine if a
seabird bycatch problem exists. If a problem exists,
States are then encouraged to develop a National
Plan of Action for Reducing the Incidental Catch of
Seabirds in Longline Fisheries (FAO, 1999).
International
The U.S. and Canada are the two member nations of
No seabird avoidance strategies are
Pacific Halibut
IPHC. IPHC manages demersal longline halibut
required, but both Canada and the
Commission
fisheries in Convention waters, which are the
U.S. have prescribed seabird
(IPHC)
territorial waters off the west coasts of Canada and
avoidance measures in longline
the USA, including the southern and western coasts
fisheries operating in the IPHC area.
of Alaska (IPHC, 1998). IPHC prepared, A Feasibility IPHC has no regulatory authority
Study That Investigates Options for Monitoring
regarding seabird bycatch, but
Bycatch of the Short-tailed Albatross in the Pacific
coordinates with the two member
Halibut Fishery off Alaska, and recommends
nations and conducts research to
implementation of a combination of monitoring
address the problem.
approaches (IPHC, 2000).
Indian Ocean
IOTC manages tuna and billfish stocks in the Indian
There is insufficient information to
Tuna Commission
Ocean. IOTC adopted a resolution on Reducing
assess the degree of seabird bycatch
(IOTC)
Incidental Bycatch of Seabirds in Longline Fisheries
problems in Member longline
in 2006 (Indian Ocean Tuna Commission, 2006).
fisheries. No seabird avoidance
There is no requirement for an onboard observer
strategies are required.
program in Member longline fisheries, and few
The IOTC seabird resolution has
Members supply observer data to the Commission
several technical problems, including
(Small, 2005). IOTC has taken several measures to
exempting all longline swordfish
combat illegal, unregulated, and unreported fishing:
vessels using the Lindgren-Pitman
(i) IOTC manages a list of authorized vessels, (ii)
monofilament main line and main line
requires Member port states to conduct port
spool style of longline gear from
inspections of non-Member vessels, (iii) exchanges
complying with recommended seabird
information on illegal fishing vessels, and (iv) has a
avoidance measures, the selection of
trade documentation program for bigeye tuna.
30 deg. S latitude as the Northern
limit for employment of recommended
seabird avoidance measures
(Australia has recognized that
problematic seabird bycatch levels
occur further North to 25 deg. S
latitude(Environment Australia,
1998)), and the selection of tori lines
as the recommended seabird
avoidance measure when other
strategies to reduce seabird bycatch
have been demonstrated to be more
effective as well as promote a higher
degree of industry compliance, which
is critical when resources for
surveillance are minimal (Gilman et
20
al., 2005). These problems may be
corrected through future amendments
to the resolution (personal
communication, Alejandro Anganuzzi,
Executive Secretary, IOTC, 2 August
2006).
Measures to combat illegal
fisheries could be improved by
instituting a catch documentation
program that records total catch,
requiring the use of VMS by Member
vessels, require port inspections by
Member vessels, and conduct at-sea
inspections (Small, 2005).
Western and
The Convention area covers the western and central
No seabird avoidance strategies are
Central Pacific
Pacific and manages migratory fish stocks as defined
required, and no measures have
Fisheries
under Annex I of the United Nations Law of the Sea
been instituted to combat illegal
Commission
to include tunas, billfish, cetaceans and sharks.
fishing. The Convention text includes
(WCPFC)
WCPFC adopted a resolution on the Incidental Catch
several provisions for the adoption of
of Seabirds (Resolution 2005-01) in December 2005,
measures to address these problems.
calling for Members, Cooperating Non-Members, and
WCPFC came into force very recently
Participating Territories to implement the FAO
(in 2004) and has made substantial
International Plan of Action Seabirds, report to the
progress in this short time towards
WCPFC on their implementation of the FAO plan,
highlighting priority fisheries bycatch
provide the WCPFC with available information on
problems, including seabird bycatch.
seabird interactions to enable an estimate of total
seabird mortality in fisheries to which the Western
and Central Pacific Fisheries Convention applies, and
the WCPFC will consider measures to reduce seabird
bycatch at its 2006 annual meeting (Western and
Central Pacific Fisheries Commission, 2005).
WCPFC does not require Members to assess seabird
bycatch levels in their fisheries or to employ seabird
avoidance measures.
International
ICCAT manages tuna and billfish fisheries in the
There is insufficient information to
Commission for
Atlantic. In 2002, ICCAT adopted a resolution on
assess the degree of seabird bycatch
the Conservation
reducing incidental mortality of seabirds (Resolution
problems in Member longline
of Atlantic Tunas
02-14). This resolution encourages ICCAT Members
fisheries. No seabird avoidance
(ICCAT)
to collect data on seabird interactions, urges
strategies are required. Data
members to implement FAO's NPOA-Seabirds, and
collection on seabird bycatch is
resolves that the Scientific Committee will report to
voluntary and not standardized.
the Commission on the impact of incidental mortality
Measures to combat illegal
on seabirds `when feasible and appropriate'
fisheries could be improved by
(International Commission for the Conservation of
instituting a catch documentation
Atlantic Tunas, 2002). ICCAT encourages, and does
program that records total catch,
not require, Members to establish onboard observer
requiring the use of VMS by all
programs.
Member vessels, require port
ICCAT has taken several measures to combat
inspections by Member vessels, and
illegal fishing activity: (i) ICCAT manages a list of
conduct at-sea inspections (Small,
authorized and illegal vessels; (ii) manages trade
2005).
documentation schemes for bluefin, swordfish and
bigeye; and (iii) requires Members to document
imports and landings and provide this information to
the Commission. Also, Member vessels > 24 m long
must use VMS but the VZMS data are not required to
be shared with ICCAT.
Agreement on the
ACAP entered into force in 2004. It identified fishery
Conservation of
interactions as a key threat facing these seabird
Albatrosses and
species, and recommended that collaboration with
21
Petrels (ACAP)
regional fishery management organizations be
pursued to reduce seabird bycatch in fisheries.
Council of the
The Convention has yet to enter into force, only three
The Regional Fishery Management
Central Eastern
of the requisite five ratifications have been made by
Organization has yet to be
Pacific Tuna
the USA, Costa Rica and Panama.
established.
Fishing Agreement
(CEPTFA)
South East
SEAFO is a Regional Fishery Management
The Regional Fishery Management
Atlantic Fisheries
Organization that manages the Southeast Atlantic
Organization was formed very
Organization
high seas area.
recently in 2004. No seabird
(SEAFO)
avoidance strategies are required.
Permanent
CCPS is an advisory body acting as an interim
The Regional Fishery Management
Commission of the Secretariat until the Galapagos Agreement comes
Organization has yet to be
South Pacific
into effect. There will be four Member Countries of
established. No seabird avoidance
(CPPS) or the
Chile, Peru, Ecuador and Colombia. CCPS manages strategies are required.
Galapagos
high seas fish stocks of the Southeast Pacific.
Agreement
South West Indian
SWIOFC is a proposed Regional Fishery
The Regional Fishery Management
Ocean Fisheries
Management Organization that would manage non-
Organization has yet to be
Commission
tuna stocks in the Western Indian Ocean. An agreed
established. There is insufficient
(SWIOFC)
Convention text has yet to be developed.
information to assess the degree of
seabird bycatch problems in Member
longline fisheries. No seabird
avoidance strategies are required.
6. ADDRESSING SEABIRD BYCATCH PROBLEMS IN THE WESTERN CENTRAL
PACIFIC
6.1. Next Steps for FFA Members to Implement the WCPFC Resolution on Seabird
Bycatch in Longline Fisheries and FAO International Plan of Action - Seabirds
There is little empirical information available to assess the degree and conservation threat of seabird
bycatch in longline fisheries of the tropical and subtropical Pacific Islands region. While available
information indicates that seabird bycatch rates are relatively low, it is possible that highly threatened
seabird populations may be affected (Watling, 2002), and that individual fisheries in the region could
have problematic seabird bycatch levels and rates. Existing observer data are insufficient to support
a conclusion with any certainty that no pelagic longline fisheries operating in the tropical Pacific
Islands region have problematic seabird bycatch, problematic in that this mortality source could be
contributing to existing or cause future seabird population declines. To eliminate uncertainty in
determining if seabird bycatch poses a serious problem in Pacific Island longline fisheries, data
specifically on seabird interactions need to be collected by independent onboard observers in all
fisheries.
Countries and territories with longline fisheries operating in their EEZ or on the high seas that
are located at the Northern, Southern and Eastern extremes of the region (Northern Mariana Islands,
USA; Marshall Islands; New Caledonia, France; Fiji; Tonga; Cook Islands; and French Polynesia)
(Fig. 1) are potentially the highest priority locations for augmenting observer coverage to record
seabird interactions.
6.1.1. Increase Onboard Observer Coverage and Define Data Collection Protocol to Ensure
Consistent Collection of Seabird Interaction Events. There is a need for adequate observer
coverage in all longline fisheries of the tropical Pacific Islands region. Observer coverage rates in
the tropical Pacific Islands region are relatively low (Molony, 2005). This results in very large error
intervals around point estimates of total seabird captures and capture rates from considerable
22
`raising' of the data to extrapolate to all fleets operating in the area. A large sample size (N > 1000)
is needed to accurately characterize rare events such as seabird captures in tropical and subtropical
Pacific longline fisheries (personal communication, September 2006, Don Kobayashi, U.S. National
Marine Fisheries Service, Pacific Islands Fisheries Science Center). Also, observer coverage rates
are not evenly distributed among flag States, areas and seasons. In order to accurately assess the
existence of any seabird bycatch problem in an individual longline fishery, long-term observer
coverage is needed because abundance of seabird species and seabird species complexes in
different areas of the tropical Pacific may exhibit high inter annual and seasonal variability relative to
higher latitudes, possibly due to the spatial and temporal variability in distribution of wind strength.
Furthermore, if a fishery is interacting with an endangered seabird population with a small population
size, the capture of a very small number of individuals from this population could be problematic
(cause or contribute to population declines). In fisheries that do have infrequent bycatch of
endangered populations of seabirds, or have sporadic high seabird bycatch rates of species that
breed outside the region (when wind conditions are suitable for seabird foraging), a high rate of
observer coverage over a long time period is likely needed to accurately characterize these rare
events. Adequate onboard observer coverage rates and adequate temporal and spatial observer
coverage provides information on the level and trends in seabird mortality and allows fishery
management authorities to determine if regulatory requirements and performance standards are
being met.
Observer data collection protocols could be improved to optimize the accuracy of information
collected on the number of seabirds being brought to the vessel during gear retrieval. Current
observer programs were not specifically designed to collect information on seabird bycatch or
bycatch of other species groups of special interest (sea turtles, marine mammals, sharks) (Molony,
2005). Because seabird interactions are extremely rare events, and because it is a documented
practice for crew to conceal captured seabirds from observers not continuously viewing the line
hauling process (Gales et al. 1998), onboard observers would need to observe every hook as it is
being hauled to the vessel from a position at the bulwark adjacent to the vessel hauling position for
optimal accuracy of estimates of bird capture levels and rates (Gilman et al., 2005). And there is a
need to account for the loss of caught birds before the haul to produce accurate estimate of total
seabird capture levels and rates (Brothers 1991; Gales et al. 1998; Gilman et al. 2003; Gilman et al.,
2005, In Press b).
6.1.2. Develop Observer Capacity for Seabird Species Identification: Secretariat of the Pacific
Community and national observer program data collection protocols could improve information on
seabird interactions in pelagic longline fisheries by developing the capacity of onboard observer to
identify and record the species of seabirds that interact with the fishing gear.
6.1.3. Modify Observer Data Collection Protocol to Record Seabird Abundance during Setting
for Fisheries with Problematic Seabird Bycatch: For fisheries in the region that are determined
from an assessment of observer data to have substantial seabird bycatch problems, observer
program data collection protocols should be expanded to record abundance of problematic seabird
species during setting in order to facilitate determining seabird capture rates normalized for seabird
abundance (Gilman et al., 2003, 2005). Observer data collection protocols could be standardized to
collect information on seabird abundance during setting and hauling. For instance, Gilman et al.
(2003, In Press b) counted and recorded the number of each seabird species present within a 500 m
by 500 m square area (within 250 m of port and starboard of the center of the vessel stern and within
500 m behind the vessel) astern of the vessel every 15 minutes during the set. Observer programs
could define a similar area around the vessel and frequency of counts to provide consistency in
measurements of mean seabird abundance during sets and hauls. A smaller area around the vessel
will need to be defined for seabird abundance observations during sets or hauls that occur at night.
Normalizing seabird interaction rates for bird abundance is an analysis approach consistent
with the accepted understanding of animal abundance and the capture process (e.g., Ricker 1958;
Seber 1973) derived from an early study on rats (Leslie and Davis 1939). Of all the factors that likely
23
affect the level of bird interactions with longline gear per unit of effort, including weather conditions,
seabird species complex, and differences in gear and fishing practices, seabird abundance may be
one of the most important. Gilman et al. (2003) demonstrated a highly significant linear correlation
between albatross abundance and seabird interaction rates, confirming the hypothesis that seabird
interaction rates should be normalized for seabird abundance. However, few studies report seabird
bycatch rates normalized for seabird abundance.
To help explain the benefit of normalizing seabird interaction rates for bird abundance,
consider the scenario where one vessel has an average of 15 seabirds attempting to obtain bait from
hooks, while a second vessel has 150 seabirds attempting to steal baits, and both vessels are
employing the same seabird avoidance method(s) and fishing methods and gear while fishing at the
same fishing grounds. Based on the results from Gilman et al. (2003), we expect about 10 times
more seabird captures per unit effort (e.g., per 1000 hooks) by the second vessel than by the first,
assuming all other potentially important factors (weather conditions, seabird species complex,
different type of gear, different bait, etc.) that significantly effect bird capture rates are the same for
the two vessels. If we did not normalize the capture rates from the two vessels by bird abundance, a
comparison of the reported capture rates (presented as captures per 1000 hooks) would imply that
the capture rate for the first vessel was 10 times lower than that of the second vessel when in fact
they were both employing seabird avoidance methods of the same efficacy. Therefore, normalizing
capture rates for bird abundance is important to allow for more accurate comparisons between
seabird interaction rates reported from multiple vessels and fleets. It is also possible to test the
influence of other variables besides bird abundance. For instance, Brothers et al. (1999) and Cherel
et al. (1996) have shown how environmental variables influence seabird bycatch rates.
6.2. Need to Consider Commercial Viability of Bycatch Avoidance Methods
There are operational and economic effects from instituting alternative seabird avoidance methods.
Given the state of management frameworks of the majority of the worlds' longline fisheries, there is a
need to focus on the commercial viability of bycatch reduction methods in order to catalyze changes
in fishing methods and gear and regulatory measures that will abate longline bycatch (Gilman et al.,
2005). To resolve the global problem of seabird mortality in longline fisheries, there is a need to
identify and institute the broad use of methods that not only have the capacity to minimize seabird
capture, but which are also practical and convenient and provide crew with incentives to employ
them consistently and effectively. It is critical to account for economic and social values of longline
fisheries to achieve changes that abate bycatch (FAO, 2004).
As the loss of bait to seabirds and concomitant reduction in catch of fish can be significant,
the use of seabird avoidance measures is expected to be cost saving for longline fisheries. However,
most longline fleets do not employ effective seabird avoidance methods despite the availability of
effective methods that also increase fishing efficiency (Brothers et al., 1999a; FAO, 2003). Reasons
for this may be (i) low industry awareness of the availability, effectiveness, and practicability of these
seabird avoidance methods; (ii) few national fishery management authorities manage interactions
between seabirds and longline vessels or require employment of effective seabird avoidance
methods (Brothers et al., 1999; BirdLife International, 2003; FAO, 2003; Gilman and Freifeld, 2003);
and (iii) lack of a sufficiently strong economic incentive for industry to change long-standing fishing
practices. Recognizing this context of global longline fisheries, maximizing industry's sense of
ownership for using effective seabird avoidance measures and providing industry with incentives for
voluntary compliance are needed. The longline industry responds best to economic incentives and
disincentives (Gilman et al., 2005). Seabird mitigation methods that increase fishing efficiency and
have operational benefits have the best chance of being accepted by industry. Eco-labeling and
certification programs can also provide industry with strong market-based and social incentives to
meet criteria to be certified as a sustainable fishery, including the employment of effective bycatch
reduction methods, but requires adequate marketing of the label to make it economically viable for
industry to participate. Additionally, if regulations requiring the use of seabird avoidance methods
are effectively enforced and carry sufficient economic consequences for noncompliance, broad
industry compliance can be achieved.
24
Gilman et al. (2003, In Press b) provide a model for designing fisheries bycatch research
experiments to collect information to reveal each treatment's economic viability, practicality, and
enforceability. Analyzing differences in alternative seabird avoidance methods' effect on bait
retention, hook setting rates, and target fish catch-per-unit-of-effort; operational benefits and costs;
time and money to adopt and employ; and enforceability is of high interest to industry, fishery
management authorities, and other stakeholders (Gilman et al., 2005).
6.3. Fishery-Specific Solutions to Bycatch
Solutions to fisheries bycatch problems, including seabird bycatch, may be fishery-specific
(Gilman et al., 2005). Different seabird avoidance methods may be appropriate for different longline
fisheries due to differences in the diving abilities of seabird species that interact with each fishery,
vessel designs, fishing gear, and fishing methods (Brothers et al. 1999). There are many factors
that influence the degree of seabird entanglements and hookings in an individual longline fishery and
for a specific vessel. Fishing practices (e.g., automated versus manual line hauling, method of gear
deployment, season and time of day when setting, use of deck lighting at night, offal discharge
practices, fishing grounds, condition of bait when setting, and proper use of mitigation measures),
type and configuration of fishing gear (e.g., placement and amount of weight and concomitant baited
hook sink rate, length of branch lines, size of hooks, use of light sticks, use of seabird avoidance
methods), weather conditions when setting, and the complex of seabird species present influence
the number of seabirds a specific vessel and fishery will catch (Brothers 1991; Brothers 1995;
Environment Australia 1998; Brothers et al. 1999; Gilman et al., 2005). Therefore, broad
assessments in individual fisheries must precede advocacy for uptake of specific seabird avoidance
methods.
For instance, while an underwater setting chute has been shown to be very effective at
avoiding seabird interactions in the Hawaii pelagic longline tuna fleet (Gilman et al., 2003), trials of
the chute in the Australian pelagic longline fishery have not been as promising, likely due to the
seabird species complex that interacts with the fishing vessels and their bait scavenging abilities and
behavioral interactions, the weighting design of the fishing gear, and the use of live bait (Brothers et
al., 2000). The deep-diving Flesh-footed Shearwater (Puffinus carneipes), currently one of the two
most often caught species in Australian waters, can reach baits to a depth of 20 m, getting caught on
baited hooks and bringing baited hooks to the surface to make them available to larger albatrosses,
petrels, and skua species, if these other species are present. Luckily deep-diving seabirds
infrequently interact with the Hawaii longline fleet. In the Australian fishery, the chute may not be
effective without being combined with additional mitigation measures and alterations to existing gear
and fishing techniques in Australian waters where this seabird assemblage is seasonally present.
For instance, when compared to the Hawaii longline tuna fishery, which uses 45 to 80 g swivels
within 20 to 90 cm from the hook, the Australian longline tuna fleet, which places 20 to 38 g weights
(if any) 3 to 4 fathoms from the hook, will have a slower hook sink rate than the Hawaii fishery,
making baited hooks available to diving seabirds longer than if the weights were placed closer to the
hooks. Also, in the Australian fishery, the effect of using live bait on seabird capture is as yet
unclear (the majority of the fleet uses a high proportion of live bait), but is believed to increase
seabird access to baited hooks.
6.4. Marine Protected Areas, Area and Seasonal Closures
Area and seasonal closures are management tools that can complement employment of other
strategies to reduce bycatch (Gilman, 2002; Gilman et al, 2005, 2006). Closed areas can have
substantial adverse economic effects on industry, but remain an available tool to fishery managers if
alternative effective methods are not available. It may also be a more desirable option than a closed
fishery. Currently information of sufficient detail is lacking for the tropical and subtropical Pacific
Islands region to determine if area or seasonal closures would be effective to address any seabird
bycatch problems in pelagic longline fisheries. If in the future this information does become
available and temporal or spatial closures are identified as an effective strategy to compliment
25
seabird avoidance in pelagic longline fisheries, several factors require consideration to ensure that
the closed areas do not exacerbate bycatch problems.
For instance, resource use restrictions of a marine protected area may displace effort to adjacent
and potentially more sensitive and valuable areas, especially if an effective management regime
does not exist for these other areas (Gilman, 2002). And instituting a closure for one longline fleet
may result in increased effort by another nation's longline fleet with fewer controls to manage
bycatch. For instance, during a four-year closure of the Hawaii longline swordfish fishery due to
concerns over bycatch of sea turtles, swordfish supply to the U.S. marketplace traditionally met by
the Hawaii fleet was replaced by imports from foreign longline fleets, including from Mexico, Panama,
Costa Rica, and South Africa, which have substantially higher ratios of sea turtle captures to unit
weight of swordfish catch and less stringent or no measures to manage seabird bycatch (Bartram
and Kaneko, 2004; Sarmiento, 2004).
Establishing protected areas containing seabird nesting colonies and adjacent waters within a
nation's Exclusive Economic Zone is potentially an expedient method to reduce interactions between
seabirds and longline fisheries. However, establishing high seas marine protected areas to restrict
longline fishing in seabird foraging areas and migration routes, which would require extensive and
dynamic boundaries defined in part by the location of large-scale oceanographic features and short-
lived hydrographic features such as eddies and fronts, and would require extensive buffers
(Hyrenbach et al., 2000), may not be a viable short-term solution (Thiel and Gilman 2001). This is
due in part to the extensive time anticipated to resolve legal complications with international treaties,
to achieve international consensus and political will, and to acquire requisite extensive resources for
surveillance and enforcement to implement high-seas marine protected areas (Thiel and Gilman
2001). Furthermore, design of a high seas protected area to address interactions between
albatrosses and longline fisheries would need to account for albatrosses' complex foraging
strategies, involving segregation by gender and age classes (Hyrenbach et al. 2000).
International bodies have created marine protected areas on the high seas: The
International Whaling Commission declared the Indian and Southern Oceans as no-take sanctuaries
for whales, covering 30 percent of the world's oceans mostly on the high seas. Conventions
governing international shipping have designated large areas of the ocean that include high seas as
Special Areas where stringent restrictions apply regarding discharges from ships. Furthermore,
under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, the International Seabed Authority
could protect areas from minerals extraction beyond national jurisdiction where there is a risk of
harm to the marine environment (Kelleher 1999). Recent developments within the framework of the
United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea and associated conventions may make it possible
in the future to restrict fisheries activities on the high seas that are shown to undermine marine
conservation (Kelleher 1999).
6.5. Considering Effects on Other Bycatch Species Groups
In addition to seabird bycatch, interactions between longline fisheries and sea turtles, sharks and
cetaceans are also problematic (Gilman et al., 2005, 2006, In Press a). When prescribing methods
to reduce seabird bycatch, it is important to identify any conflicts as well as mutual benefits of
bycatch of these other species groups of special interest. For instance, when designing gear to
improve the baited hook sink rate to avoid seabird interactions, the gear design needs to consider
effects on any change in the depth of various components of the gear, which can affect the catch
rate of sea turtles and sharks (Rey and Munoz-Chapuli, 1991; Williams, 1997; Gilman et al. 2006, In
Press a).
7. REGIONAL PLAN OF ACTION - SEABIRDS
To comply with the WCPFC Resolution 2005-01 on the Incidental Catch of Seabirds, and the Food
and Agriculture Organization of the United Nation's International Plan of Action for Reducing the
Incidental Catch of Seabirds in Pelagic Longline Fisheries, FFA Members (excluding Australia and
26
New Zealand, which have already conducted assessments and determined that their longline
fisheries have problematic seabird interactions and adopted National Plans of Action, and Tokelau,
which currently has no longline activity) are encouraged to conduct assessments of their longline
fisheries to determine if a seabird bycatch problem exists. National fishery management authorities
are encouraged to achieve adequate levels of observer coverage to detect and reliably estimate
levels of incidental seabird capture. This includes adequate spatial and temporal coverage of fishing
effort, as it is likely that seabird interactions will be highly variable temporally and spatially. It may
require several years for assessments to be conducted in individual fisheries because seabird
bycatch rates are potentially temporally and spatially highly variable, and because interactions with
any threatened populations of seabirds may be particularly rare events. Due to the rarity of seabird
capture events even in fisheries with relatively high seabird interaction rates, there is a need for
onboard observers dedicated to observing interactions with species groups of special interest,
including seabirds, to provide accurate bycatch data. Observers should obtain annual training in
standardized methods to count seabird abundance during setting and seabird species identification.
If an assessment of an FFA Member's pelagic longline fishery reveals problematic seabird
interactions, then the FFA Member Country is encouraged to adopt and implement a Pacific Islands
Regional Plan of Action for Reducing the Incidental Catch of Seabirds in Pelagic Longline Fisheries.
Appendix I presents a Draft Pacific Islands Regional Plan of Action Seabirds for consideration for
adoption by FFA Members in the case where a longline fishery is determined to have problematic
seabird interactions. Results of the review of seabird bycatch avoidance methods and initiatives by
Regional Fishery Management Organizations and other organizations to manage seabird bycatch in
longline fisheries assisted in identifying suitable seabird avoidance measures for the Pacific Islands
Regional Plan of Action Seabirds. The selection of suitable seabird avoidance methods
considered the operational and economic effects from instituting alternative seabird avoidance
methods. FFA Members with pelagic longline fisheries with problematic seabird interactions may
decide to develop their own National Plan of Action for Reducing the Incidental Catch of Seabirds in
Longline Fisheries. The benefit of developing a National Plan of Action-Seabirds tailored to their
individual fisheries is that solutions to fisheries bycatch problems, including seabird bycatch, may be
fishery-specific, as described previously (Gilman et al., 2005).
For pelagic longline fisheries where seabird capture rates and levels are problematic but
relatively moderate and are temporally and spatially variable and unpredictable, such that seabird
captures are an acute problem, occurring in pulses and not chronically, the Draft Pacific Islands
Regional Plan of Action Seabirds recommends the adoption of a prescribed branch line weighting
design, which is a seabird mitigation measure that has minimal imposition on industry while
providing a reasonable degree of protection for seabirds. For these fisheries, a line weighting design
of a minimum of 45 g of weight within 0.5 m of the hook is prescribed to achieve a baited hook sink
rate performance standard of 1 m s-1 over at least the first 5 m. This is the sink rate of baited hooks
in the Hawaii-based longline fleet, which uses Lindgren Pitman monofilament line and spool style
gear with a minimum of a 45 g swivel located at 0.5 m from the hook (Brothers and Gilman, 2006).
For pelagic longline fisheries where seabird capture rates and levels are problematic and
relatively high, as is expected to occur for longline fisheries operating at grounds south of 30 deg. S
latitude, where seabird bycatch is known to be problematic, the Pacific Islands Regional Plan of
Action Seabirds recommends that, in addition to complying with the branch line weighting design,
vessels in these fisheries be required to employ one of three additional measures of side setting,
night setting, or bird-scaring line to further protect baited hooks from seabirds. Experiments have
demonstrated that these three seabird avoidance methods can significantly reduce seabird capture
rates. Specifications for side setting and night setting are defined in U.S. National Marine Fisheries
Service (2005) and are suitable for adoption for the Pacific Islands Regional Plan of Action -
Seabirds. The CCAMLR or CCSBT tori line design and deployment guidelines are suitable for
adoption.
8. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
27
Nigel Brothers, Marine Ecology and Technology Consultant, provided insightful comments on drafts
of this report. Emmanual Schneiter, Tim Lawson and Deirdre Brogan, Secretariat of the Pacific
Community, conducted several data queries of the SPC observer database and technical input.
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32
Appendix 1
Draft Pacific Islands Regional Plan of Action for Reducing the Incidental Catch of Seabirds in
Pelagic Longline Fisheries
1. Introduction and Purpose
The United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization's International Plan of Action for Reducing
the Incidental Catch of Seabirds in Longline Fisheries (International Plan of Action Seabirds)
encourages States to voluntarily implement the plan starting by conducting an assessment of
longline fisheries to determine if a seabird bycatch problem exists. If a problem exists, States are
then encouraged to develop a National Plan of Action for Reducing the Incidental Catch of Seabirds
in Longline Fisheries (FAO, 1999). The International Plan of Action Seabirds provides guidance
for the contents of national plans, stating that they may contain provisions for assessments to
determine the extent and nature of a State's incidental mortality of seabirds in longline fisheries,
prescribe appropriate longline fishery-specific mitigation measures, contain plans for research and
development, prescribe outreach and education activities, and provide guidance for data collection
programs. The Western and Central Pacific Fisheries Commission (WCPFC) adopted a resolution
on the Incidental Catch of Seabirds (Resolution 2005-01) in December 2005. This resolution calls
for Members, Cooperating Non-Members, and Participating Territories to implement the FAO
International Plan of Action Seabirds, report to the WCPFC on their implementation of the FAO
plan, provide the WCPFC with available information on seabird interactions to enable an estimate of
total seabird mortality in fisheries to which the Western and Central Pacific Fisheries Convention
applies, and the WCPFC will consider measures to reduce seabird bycatch at its 2006 annual
meeting (Western and Central Pacific Fisheries Commission, 2005).
There is a dearth of information on seabird interactions in domestic and foreign licensed
longline fisheries based out of Pacific Islands Forum Fisheries Agency (FFA) Member Countries and
territory and foreign licensed distant water longline fisheries operating in the EEZs adjacent to FFA
Member Countries and territory in the tropical and subtropical Pacific, excluding Australia and New
Zealand (Watling, 2002; Gilman, 2006). Therefore, as a first step, FFA Members are encouraged to
conduct assessments of their longline fisheries to determine if seabird bycatch problems exist. FFA
Members who determine that their pelagic longline fisheries have problematic seabird bycatch are
then encouraged to adopt and implement this Pacific Islands Regional Plan of Action for Reducing
the Incidental Catch of Seabirds in Pelagic Longline Fisheries (Pacific Islands Regional Plan of
Action - Seabirds), which provides two tiers of prescribed seabird avoidance methods depending on
the scale and patterns of seabird interactions.
Prescribed seabird avoidance methods were selected based on an assessment of the
operational and economic effects from their employment. FFA Members with pelagic longline
fisheries with problematic seabird interactions may decide to develop their own National Plan of
Action for Reducing the Incidental Catch of Seabirds in Longline Fisheries. The benefit of
developing a National Plan of Action-Seabirds tailored to their individual fisheries is that solutions to
fisheries bycatch problems, including seabird bycatch, may be fishery-specific, as described
previously (Gilman et al., 2005).
2. Assessing Seabird Bycatch Levels and Rates in Individual Longline Fisheries and
Observer Defined Duties
Through consultation with SPC, FFA and WCPFC, national fishery management authorities are
encouraged to achieve adequate levels of observer coverage to detect and reliably estimate levels
of incidental seabird capture. This includes adequate spatial and temporal coverage of fishing effort,
as it is likely that seabird interactions will be highly variable by area and season. It may require
Appendix 1, Pacific Islands Regional Plan of Action Seabirds 33
several years for assessments to be conducted in individual fisheries because seabird bycatch rates
are potentially temporally and spatially highly variable, and because interactions with any threatened
populations of seabirds may be particularly rare events. Due to the rarity of seabird capture events
even in fisheries with relatively high seabird interaction rates, onboard observers should be
dedicated to observing seabird interactions, as observers need to watch the hauling of every branch
line being retrieved from a position at the bulwark at the hauling station as their primary duty in order
to obtain an accurate count of seabird captures. Observers should obtain annual training in
standardized methods to count seabird abundance during setting and seabird species identification.
In general, where information is available to determine the population level effects from
seabird interactions in an individual fishery, a fishery has a seabird bycatch problem if mortality
levels are contributing to or likely to contribute in the future to a population decline, or otherwise if
bycatch levels and rates could be substantially reduced through the employment of seabird
avoidance methods. Although this Pacific Islands Regional Plan of Action - Seabirds does not
include quantitative criteria for determining what constitutes a seabird bycatch problem for individual
longline fisheries, national fishery management authorities, in consultation with SPC, FFA and
WCPFC, should make a determination that is consistent with applicable national law and
international guidance.
3. Seabird Avoidance Measures
For pelagic longline fisheries where seabird capture rates and levels are problematic but relatively
moderate and are temporally and spatially variable and unpredictable, such that seabird captures
are an acute problem, occurring in pulses and not chronically, the Draft Pacific Islands Regional Plan
of Action Seabirds recommends the adoption of a prescribed branch line weighting design, which
is a seabird mitigation measure that has minimal imposition on industry while providing a reasonable
degree of protection for seabirds. For these fisheries, a line weighting design of a minimum of 45 g
of weight within 0.5 m of the hook is prescribed to achieve a baited hook sink rate performance
standard of 1 m s-1 over at least the first 5 m. 5
For pelagic longline fisheries where seabird capture rates and levels are problematic and
relatively high, as is expected to occur for longline fisheries operating at grounds south of 30 deg. S
latitude, where seabird bycatch is known to be problematic, the Pacific Islands Regional Plan of
Action Seabirds recommends that, in addition to complying with the branch line weighting design,
vessels in these fisheries be required to employ one of three additional measures of side setting,
night setting, or bird-scaring line to further protect baited hooks from seabirds. Experiments have
demonstrated that these three seabird avoidance methods can significantly reduce seabird capture
rates. Specifications for side setting and night setting are defined in U.S. National Marine Fisheries
Service (2005) and are suitable for adoption for the Pacific Islands Regional Plan of Action -
Seabirds. The CCAMLR or CCSBT tori line design and deployment guidelines are suitable for
adoption.
4. Timeline for Implementation
FFA Members are encouraged to achieve adequate levels of observer coverage as soon as possible
that enable adequate spatial and temporal coverage of fishing activities to detect and reliably
estimate levels of incidental seabird capture.
5 Based on the sink rate over the first 5 m of the baited hooks used by the Hawaii-based longline tuna
fleet using Lindgren Pitman monofilament line and spool `American-style' longline gear with a minimum of
a 45 g swivel located within 0.5 m of the hook (Brothers and Gilman, 2006). There are crew safety issues
with branch line weighting, but there are methods to manage this safety risk.
Appendix 1, Pacific Islands Regional Plan of Action Seabirds 34
Upon determining that a pelagic longline fishery has problematic seabird interactions (is
causing population-level effects, is capturing individuals of a threatened seabird population, or has
seabird bycatch levels and rates that could be substantially reduced through the employment of
seabird avoidance methods), the FFA Member is encouraged to immediately adopt and implement
this Pacific Islands Regional Plan of Action Seabirds, or otherwise adopt and implement their own
National Plan of Action Seabirds tailored to their individual fisheries.
5. Streamer Line Design Specifications
The following guidelines for the design of a bird-scaring streamer line, adapted from CCAMLR
(2005), are to be complied with for vessels that select this seabird avoidance method:
a. Vessels are encouraged to optimize the aerial extent and ensure that it protects baited hooks as
far astern of the vessel as possible, even in crosswinds and especially in conditions of strong
wind.
b. The streamer line shall be attached to the vessel such that it is suspended from a point a
minimum of 7 m above the water at the stern on the windward side of the point where baited
hooks enters the water (Fig. 1).
c. The streamer line shall be a minimum of 150 m in length, providing 80 100 m of aerial
coverage). If additional tension is required to maintain the aerial portion of the bird line such that
in crosswinds the aerial extent of the streamer line is over the hookline, then increase drag by
increasing the length of the line that is dragged in the water behind the aerial portion of the bird
line. Towing an object at the seaward end of the bird line is not a recommended method to
increase line tension because experience reveals that this tends to result in the bird line tangling
with the gear, which can result in breaking the main line or bird line.
d. Branched streamers, each comprising two strands of a minimum of 3 mm diameter brightly
colored plastic tubing (plastic tubing should be of a type that is manufactured to be protected
from ultraviolet radiation) or cord, shall be attached no more than 5 m apart. The first streamer
line is attached 5 m astern and every 5 m thereafter along the aerial extent of the line. Streamer
length shall range between minimums of 6.5 m from the stern to 1 m for the seaward end. When
a streamer line is fully deployed, the branched streamers should reach the sea surface in the
absence of wind and swell. Swivels or a similar device should be placed in the streamer line in
such a way as to prevent streamers being twisted around the streamer line. Each branched
streamer may also have a swivel or other device at its attachment point to the streamer line to
prevent fouling of individual streamers.
e. Vessels are encouraged to deploy a second streamer line such that two streamer lines are
towed from the point of attachment on each side of the location where baited hooks are entering
the water. The leeward streamer line should be of similar specifications (in order to avoid
entanglement the leeward streamer line may need to be shorter) and deployed from the leeward
side of the hookline.
Appendix 1, Pacific Islands Regional Plan of Action Seabirds 35
Fig. 1. Schematic of streamer line design (adapted from
CCAMLR, 2005).
6. Side Setting Specifications
Side setting means setting longline gear from the side of the vessel rather than the conventional
position at the stern (Gilman et al., 2005; Yokota and Kiyota, 2006). Crew set baited hooks close to
the side of the vessel hull where seabirds, such as albatrosses, don't pursue them. Ideally, by the
time the stern passes, the hook has sunk beyond the reach of seabirds. Vessels opting to side set
will (adapted from U.S. National Marine Fisheries Service (2005)):
a. Set all gear from a position on the port or starboard side as far forward as possible but a
minimum of 2 m from the stern corner (Fig. 2). Side setting from the port side is more
convenient than from the starboard side if hauling is conducted from the starboard side.
This is because a fixed position main line shooter will not interfere with line hauling at the
conventional starboard position when port side setting, it is a more natural throwing motion
for right-handed crew to set from the port side, and main line shooters have motors on their
left side, making it more convenient to clip branch lines to the main line when port side
setting. A vessel's layout may make it impossible to set from the port side, or it may be
possible to set further forward from the starboard side. Setting from the starboard side can
reduce birds' ability to take advantage of wind direction to access baited hooks. When
setting from the starboard side, if possible, use a main line shooter motor and mounting
plate that accommodate right side mounting.
b. Throw baited hooks as far forward and as close to the hull as possible.
c. Clip branch lines to the mainline the moment that the line shooter passes the baited hook.
This minimizes tension in the branch line, and keeps the baited hook from being pulled
towards the surface where birds can reach it.
Appendix 1, Pacific Islands Regional Plan of Action Seabirds 36
Fig. 2. Conventional stern setting position and port side setting
position (Gilman et al., In Press).
8. Night Setting Specifications
Vessels opting to night set will begin the deployment of all gear at least 1 hour after local sunset and
complete the deployment no later than local sunrise, using only the minimum vessel lights to
conform with navigation rules and best safety practices (adapted from U.S. National Marine
Fisheries Service (2005)). This method of bait protection, when combined with adequate line
weighting and another bait protection method such as side setting, can be the only solution to
prevent high seabird mortalities at areas where proficient diving species of seabirds are present.
9. References
Brothers, N., E. Gilman. 2006. Technical Assistance for Hawaii Pelagic Longline Vessels to
Change Deck Design and Fishing Practices to Side Set. Hawaii Longline Association, U.S.
NOAA Fisheries Pacific Islands Fisheries Science Center and Pacific Islands Regional Office,
and Western Pacific Regional Fishery Management Council: Honolulu, Hawaii.
CCAMLR. 2005. CCAMLR Conservation Measure 25-02. Minimisation of the Incidental Mortality of
Seabirds in the Course of Longline Fishing or Longline Fishing Research in the Convention Area.
CCAMLR Secretariat, Hobart, Australia.
FAO. 1999. International Plan of Action for Reducing Incidental Catch of Seabirds in Longline
Fisheries. United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization: Rome, Italy. 10 pp.
Appendix 1, Pacific Islands Regional Plan of Action Seabirds 37
Gilman E., Brothers N., Kobayashi D. In Press. Comparison of the efficacy of three seabird bycatch
avoidance methods in Hawaii pelagic longline fisheries. Fisheries Science 73(1).
Gilman, E.L. 2006. Incidental Capture of Seabirds in Pelagic Longline Fisheries of the Tropical and
Subtropical Pacific Islands Region and Pacific Islands Regional Plan of Action for Reducing the
Incidental Catch of Seabirds in Longline Fisheries. Prepared for the Pacific Islands Forum
Fisheries Agency, Honiara, Solomon Islands.
Gilman, E., N. Brothers, D. Kobayashi. 2005. Principles and approaches to abate seabird bycatch
in longline fisheries. Fish and Fisheries 6(1): 35-49.
Yokota, K., M. Kiyota. 2006. Preliminary Report of Side-Setting Experiments in a Large Sized
Longline Vessel. National Research Institute of Far Seas Fisheries, Shimizu, Japan. Prepared
for the Scientific Committee of the Western and Central Pacific Fisheries Commission, 7-18
August, 2006, Manila, Philippines.
U.S. National Marine Fisheries Service. 2005. Fisheries Off West Coast States and in the Western
Pacific; Pelagic Fisheries; Additional Measures to Reduce the Incidental Catch of Seabirds in the
Hawaii Pelagic Longline Fishery. Federal Register 70(242): 75075-75080.
Watling. D. 2002. Interactions Between Seabirds and Pacific Island's Fisheries, Particularly the
Tuna Fisheries. Prepared for the Secretariat of the Pacific Community, Noumea, New Caledonia.
37 pp.
Western and Central Pacific Fisheries Commission. 2005. Resolution on the Incidental Catch of
Seabirds. Resolution 2005-01. Adopted at the Second Session of the Western and Central
Pacific Fisheries Commission, Pohnpei, FSM, 12-16 December 2005. 1 pp.
Appendix 1, Pacific Islands Regional Plan of Action Seabirds 38